Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION PUBLICATION 4435 Showing the Operations, Expenditures, and Condition of the Institution for the Year Ended June 30 I960 U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON: 1961 <^ iS/ LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL Smithsonlvn Institution, Washington, December 27, 1960. To the Congress of the United States: In accordance with section 5593 of the Revised Statutes of the United States, I have the honor, on behalf of the Board of Regents, to submit to Congress the annual report of the operations, expendi- tures, and condition of the Smithsonian Institution for the year ended June 30, 1960. Respectfully, Leonaed Carmichael, Secretary. CONTENTS Page List of officials v General statement 1 The Establishment 6 The Board of Regents 6 Finances 7 Visitors 7 Reports of branches of the Institution: United States National Museum 9 Bureau of American Ethnology -- 48 Astrophysical Observatory 83 National Collection of Fine Arts 97 Freer Gallery of Art 106 National Air Museum 119 National Zoological Park 131 Canal Zone Biological Area 172 International Exchange Service 177 National Gallery of Art 186 Report on the library 199 Report on publications 202 Other activities: Lectures 211 Bio-Sciences Information Exchange 211 Smithsonian Museum Service 212 Report of the executive committee of the Board of Regents 214 GENERAL APPENDIX The science of yesterday, today, and tomorrow, by W. F. G. Swann 229 The origin and nature of the moon, by Harold C. Urey 251 Exploring the solar system by radar, by Paul E. Green, Jr., and Gordon H. Pettengill 267 Digital computers: Their history, operation, and use, by E. M. McCorraick. 281 Navigation — From canoes to spaceships, by Charles S. Draper 301 Photography of the ocean floor, by A. S. Laughton 319 History of a tsunami, by Elliott B. Roberts 327 Hailstorms and hailstones of the western Great Plains, by Vincent J. Schaefer 341 The 1959-60 eruption of Kilauea Volcano, by Donald H. Richter and Jerry P. Eaton -_. 349 Diamonds, by H. J. Logie 357 m rV ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSOIOAN INSTITUTION, 1960 Page Seeing the magnetization in transparent magnetic crystals, by J. F. Dillon, Jr 385 Biophysics of bird flight, by August Raspet 405 Animal societies, from slime molds to man, by R. E. Snodgrass 425 Luminescence in marine organisms, by J. A. C. Nicol 447 Trumpets in the West, by William B. Morse 457 Problems involved in the development of clam farms, by Harry J. Turner, Jr 465 The growth of cotton fiber science in the United States, by Arthur W. Palmer 473 Rice — Basic food for one-third of the earth's people, by Raymond E. Crist. 509 The River Basin salvage program: After 15 years, by Frank H. H. Roberts, Jr. __ _ 523 New World prehistory, by Gordon R. Willey 551 The art of Seth Eastman, by John Francis McDermott 577 LIST OF PLATES Secretary's Report: Plates 1, 2 _ 62 Plates 3, 4 _ 106 Plate 5 110 Plates 6-9 134 Plates 10-13 _ 198 Origin and nature of the moon (Urey): Plates 1-5 262 Solar system (Green and Pettengill); Plates 1-3 270 Navigation (Draper): Plates 1-4 310 Photography of the ocean floor (Laughton): Plates 1-9 326 History of a tsunami (E. B. Roberts): Plate 1 334 Hailstorms (Schaefer): Plates 1-8 342 Kilauea Volcano (Richter and Eaton): Plates 1, 2 350 Magnetic crystals (Dillon) : Plates 1-8 390 Bird flight (Raspet): Plates, 1, 2 422 Luminescence (Nicol): Plates 1-4 454 Trumpets in the West (Morse): Plates 1-3 462 Clam farms (Turner): Plates 1-3 470 Cotton fiber science (Palmer): Plates 1-8 486 Rice (Crist): Plates 1-6 518 River Basins salvage program (F. H. H. Roberts): Plates 1-12 534 New World prehistory (Willey) : Plates 1-7 566 The art of Seth Eastman (McDermott) : Plates 1-8 582 THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION June 30, 1960 Presiding Officer ex officio. — Dwiqht D. Eisenhoweb, President of the United States. Chancellor. — Eakl Wakben, Chief Justice of the United States. Members of the Institution: DwiGHT D. EiSENHOWEB, President of the United States. Richard M. Nixon, Vice President of the United States. Eabl Waeeen, Chief Justice of the United States. Cheistian a. Herteb, Secretary of State. Robert B. Andebson, Secretary of the Treasury. Thomas S. Gates, Jb., Secretary of Defense. William P. Roqebs, Attorney General. Arthub B. Summebfield, Postmaster General. Fbed a. Seaton, Secretary of the Interior. Ezra Taft Benson, Secretary of Agriculture. Fbedebick H. MtJELLEB, Secretary of Commerce. James P. Mitchell, Secretary of Labor. Arthub S. Flemminq, Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare. Regents of the Institution: Eabl Warren, Chief Justice of the United States, Chancellor. RiCHABD M. Nixon, Vice President of the United States. Clinton P. Andebson, Member of the Senate. J, William Fulbbight, Member of the Senate. Levebett Saltonstall, Member of the Senate. Fbank T. Bow, Member of the House of Representatives. OvEBTON Bbooks, Member of the House of Representatives. Clarence Cannon, Member of the House of Representatives. John Nicholas Bbown, citizen of Rhode Island. Abthub H. Compton, citizen of Missouri. Robert V. Fleming, citizen of Washington, D.C. Crawford H. Geeenewalt, citizen of Delaware. Caryl P. Haskins, citizen of Washington, D.C. Jerome C. Hunsaker, citizen of Massachusetts. Executive Committee. — Robert V. Fleming, chairman, Clabence Cannon, Cabyl P. Haskins. Secretary. — Leonabd Cabmiohael. Assistant Secretaries. — J. L. Keddy, A. Remington Kelloqo. Assistant to the Secretary. — James C. Beadley. Administrative assistant to the Secretary. — Mbs. Louise M. Pearson. Treasurer. — Edgar L. Roy. Chief, editorial and publications division. — Paul H. Oehseb. Librarian. — Ruth E. Blanchard. Curator, Smithsonian Museum Service G. Cabboll Lindsay. Buildings Manager. — Andbew F. Michaels, Jb. Director of Personnel. — L. C. Westfall. Chief, supply division. — A. W. Wilding. Chief, photographic service division. — O. H. Gbeebon. VI ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1960 UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM Director. — A. Remington Kellogg. Registrar. — Helena M. Weiss. MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY Director.— A. C. Smith. Department of Anthropology : F. M. Setzler, head curator ; A. J. Andrews, exhibits specialist. Division of Archeology: W. R. Wedel, curator; Clifford Evans, Jr., G. W. Van Beek, associate curators. Division of Ethnology: S. 11. Rieseuberg, curator; G. D. Gibson, E. I. Knez, associate curators ; R. A. Elder, Jr., assistant curator. Division of Physical Anthropology: T. D. Stewart, curator; M. T. Newman, associate curator. Department of Zoology : Herbert Friedmann, head curator. Division of Mammals: D. H. Johnson, curator ; C. O. Haudley, Jr., H. W. Setzer, associate curators. Division of Birds: Herbert Friedmann, acting curator; H. G. Deignan, as- sociate curator. Division of Reptiles and Amphibians: Doris M. Cochran, curator. Division of Fishes: L. P. Schultz, curator; E. A. Lachner, W. R. Taylor, associate curators. Division of Insects: J. F. G. Clarke, curator; O. L. Cartwright, R. E. Crabill, Jr., W. D. Field, associate curators ; Sophy Parfln, assistant curator. Division of Marine Invertebrates: F. A. Chace, Jr., curator; F. M. Bayer, T. E. Bowman, C. E. Cutress, Jr., associate curators. Division of Mollusks: H. A. Rehder, curator; J. P. E. Morrison, associate curator. Department of Botany (National Hebarium) : J. R. Swallen, head curator. Division of Phanerogams: L. B. Smith, curator ; K. S. Cowan, E. C. Leonard, Velva E. Rudd, J. J. Wurdack, associate curators. Division of Ferns: C. V. Morton, curator. Division of Grasses: J. R. Swallen, acting curator. Division of Cryptogams: M. E. Hale, Jr., acting curator; P. S. Conger, as- sociate curator ; R. R. Ireland, Jr., assistant curator. Division of Woods: W. L. Stern, curator. Department of Geology : G. A. Cooper, head curator. Division of Mineralogy and Petrology: G. S. Switzer, curator; R. S. Clarke, Jr., P. E. Desautels, E. P. Henderson, associate curators. Division of Invertebrate Paleontology and Paleobotany: G. A. Cooper, acting curator ; R. S. Boardman, P. M. Kier, Richard Cifelli, associate curators ; E. G. Kauffman, assistant curator. Division of Vertebrate Paleontology: C. L. Gazin, curator; D. H. Dunkle, Nicholas Hotton, III, associate curators; F. L. Pearce, exhibits specialist. MUSEUM OF history AND TECHNOLOGY Director. — F. A. Taylor. Assistant Director. — J. C. Ewers. Chief exhibits specialist. — J. E. Anglim. Chief zoological exhibits specialist. — (Vacant.) Assistant chief exhibits specialists. — B. S. Bory, B. O. Hower, B. W. Lawless, Jr. SECRETARY'S REPORT VH Department of Science and Technology : R. P. Multhauf , head curator. Division of Physical Sciences: R. P. Multhauf, acting curator. Division of Mechanical and Civil Engineering: E. S. Ferguson, curator; E. A. Battisou, associate curator; R. M. Vo,uel, assistant curator. Division of Transtwrtation: H. I. Chapelle, curator ; K. M. Perry, associate curator; J. H. White, Jr., assistant curator. Division of Electricity : W. J. King, Jr., acting curator. Dixnsion of Medical Sciences: J. B. Blake, curatoi', S. K. Hamarneh, asso- ciate curator. Department of Arts and Manufactures : P. W. Bishop, head curator. Division of Textiles: Grace L. Rogers, acting curator. Division of Ceramics and Glass: P. V. Gardner, acting curator. Division of Graphic Acts: Jacob Kaiuen, curator; F. O. Griffith, 3d, assistant curator. Division of Agriculture and Forest Products: E. C. Kendall, acting curator. Division of Industrial Cooperation: P. W. Bishop, acting curator; Charles O. Houston, Jr., associate curator. Department of Cn'iL History : A. N. B. Garvan, head curator ; P. C. "Welsh, associate curator. Division of Political History: W. E. Washburn, curator, Mrs. Margaret B. Klapthor, associate curator ; C. G. Dormau, Mrs. Anne W. Murray, assistant curators. Division of Cultural History: C. M. Watkins, acting curator; J. D. Short- ridge, Rodris 0. Roth, associate curators ; John N. Pearce, assistant curator. Division of Philately and Postal History: G. T. Turner, acting curator; F. J. McCall, associate curator ; C. H. Scheele, assistant curator. Division of Numismatics: "Vladimir Clain-Stefanelli, acting curator; Mrs. Elvira Clain-Stefauelli, assistant curator. Department of Armed Forces History : M. L. Peterson, head curator. Division of Military History: E. M. Howell, acting curator; C. R. Golns, Jr., assistant curatoi. Division of Naval History: M. L. Peterson, acting curator; P. K. Lundeberg, associate curator. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY Director. — F. H. H. Roberts, Jr. Anthropologist. — H. B. Collins, Jr. Ethnologists.— W. C. Sturtevant, W. L. Chafe. River Basin Surveys. — F. H. H. Roberts, Jr., Director; R. L. Stephenson, Chief, Missouri Basin Project. ASTROPHYSICAL OBSERVATORY Director. — F. L. Whipple. Associate Director. — J. A. Hynek. Astrophysicists. — R. J. Davis, E. L. Fireman, L. G. Jacchia, Max Krook, F. B. Riggs, Jr., C. A. Whitney. Mathematician. — R. E. Briggs. Table Mountain, Calif., field station. — A. G. Froiland, physicist. Division of Radiation and Organisms : Chief.— W. H. Klein. Plant physiologists. — V. B. EJlstad, Leonard Price, E. C. Sisler. Electronic engineer. — J. H. Harrison. Instrument maker. — D. G. Talbert. Vni ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 19 60 NATIONAL COLLECTION OF FINE ARTS Director. — T. M. Beggs. Associate curator. — Rowland Lyon. Smithsonian Traveling Exhibition Service. — Mrs. Annemarie H. Pope, Chief. FREER GALLERY OF ART Director. — A. G. Wenley. Assistant Director. — J. A. Pope. Associate in Near Eastern art. — Richard Ettinghausen. Curator, Laboratory. — R. J. Gettens. Associate curators. — J. F. Cahlll, H. P. Stern. NATIONAL AIR MUSEUM Advisory Board: Leonard Carmichael, Chairman. Maj. Gen. Brooke 0. Allen, U.S. Air Force. Rear Adm. P. D, Stroop, U.S. Navy. Lt. Gen. James H. Doolittle. Grover Loening. Director. — P. S. Hopkins. Head curator and historian, — P. E. Garber. Associate curators. — L. S. Casey, W. M. Male, K. E. Newland. Junior curator. — R. B. Meyer. NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK Director.— T. H. Reed. Associate Director. — J. L. Grimmer. Veterinarian. — James F. Wright. CANAL ZONE BIOLOGICAL AREA Resident Naturalist. — M. H. Moynihan. INTERNATIONAL EXCHANGE SERVICE Chief.— J. A. Collins. NATIONAL GALLERY OF ART Trustees: Eabl Warren, Chief Justice of the United States, Chairman. Christian A. Herter, Secretary of State. Robert B. Anderson, Secretary of the Treasury. Leonard Cabmichaeil, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. F. Lam MOT Belin. Duncan Phillips. Chester Dale. Paitl Mellon. Rush H. Kress. President. — Chesteb Dale. Vice President. — F. Lamont BKUif. Becretary-Treasurer. — Huntington Oaibns. Director. — John Walkeui. Administrator. — Ernest R. Feidleh. General Counsel. — Huntingtow Cairns. Chief Curator. — Pkbrt B. Cott. SECRETARY'S REPORT rx Honorary Research Associates, Collaborators, and Fellows Office of the Secretary John E. Graf United States National Museum museum of natural history Anthropology Mrs. Arthur M. Greenwood. N. M. Judd, Archeology. H. W. Krieger, Ethnology. Betty J. Meggers, Archeology. J. Bruce Bredin. M. A. Carriker, Insects. C. J. Drake, Insects. Isaac Ginsberg, Fishes. D. C. Graham, Biology. Horton H. Hobbs, Jr., Marine Invertebrates. A. B. Howell, Mammals. Laurence Irving, Birds. W. L. Jellison, Insects. W. M. Mann, Hymenoptera. Mrs. Agnes Chase, Grasses. E. P. Klllip, Phanerogams. R. S. Bassler, Paleontology. O. Wythe Cooke, Invertebrate Paleontology. H. Morgan Smith, Archeology. W. W. Taylor, Jr., Archeology. W, J. Tobin, Physical Anthropology. Zoology Allen Mcintosh, MoUusks. J. P. Moore, Marine Invertebrates. C. F. W. Muesebeck, Insects. W. L. Schmitt. Benjamin Schwartz, Helminthology. R. E. Snodgrass, Insects. T. E. Snyder, Insects. Alexander Wetmore, Birds. Mrs. Mildred S. Wilson, Copepod Crustacea. Botany F. A. McClure, Grasses. J. A. Stevenson, Fungi. Geology W. T. Schaller, Mineralogy. Elmer C. Herber. Ivor M. Hume. MUSEUM OF HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY Exhibits William L. Brown. History F. W. MacKay, Numismatics. Science and Technology Derek J. Price. Bureau of American Ethnology J. P. Harrington. Sister M. Inez Hilger. M. W. Stirling. A. J. Waring, Jr. ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 19 60 ASTROPHYSICAL OBSERVATORY C. G. Abbot. Freer Gallery of Art Oleg (^rabar. Grace Dunham Guest. Max Loehr. Katherine N. Rhoades. National Air Museum I^ederick C. Crawford. | John J, Ide. National Zoological Park W. M. Mann. | E. P. Walker. Canal Zone Biological Area C. C. Soper. Report of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution LEONARD CARMICHAEL For the Year Ended June 30, 1960 To the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution: Gentlemen: I have the honor to submit a report showing the activities and condition of the Smithsonian Institution and its branches for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1960. GENERAL STATEMENT It is perennially amazing, in rereading the history of the Smith- sonian Institution, to realize the wisdom that guided the founder, James Smithson, and the prime organizer and first Secretaiy, Joseph Henry. Smithson directed, in his now famous phrase, that his institution concern itself with "the increase and diffusion of knowl- edge among men." This was indeed a broad and humane prescrip- tion. Equally so was Joseph Henry's interpretation of it when he came to lay down the fundamental plan of the Institution. Said Henry: "Smithson's will makes no restriction in favor of any par- ticular kind of knowledge, and hence all branches are entitled to a share of attention. He was well aware that knowledge should not be viewed as existing in isolated parts, but as a whole, each portion of which throws light on all the others, and that the tendency of all is to improve the human mind, and to give it new sources of power and enjoyment." He further added, "To effect the greatest good, the or- ganization of the Institution should be such as to produce results which could not be attained by other means." The social import of the Smithsonian's broad and inspiring charter has never been more obvious than it is in today's atomic age when the great modern achievements in science and technology, which daily impress themselves upon every citizen, call for the widest and most liberal basis of understanding. But this is still an age in which enlightenment is far from universal. A great responsibility, therefore, rests upon those individuals and institutions into whose hands has been placed the preservation of our cultural and scientific heritage 1 2 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1960 to provide, in every effectual way, those new sources of intellectual power that Joseph Henry visualized so that every citizen will aspire to an understanding of this complex modern world and feel himself a part of man's upward struggle. We have an obligation to the future. In shaping our museum halls, we must render human history — of our environment, our ideas, or technical achievements, our institutions, our manners and customs, our daily lives — meaningful to the citizens of tomorrow as well as of today. It is, also, our responsibility to raise the general level of cultural appreciation, to educate m the broadest sense, and to encourage people to seek knowledge of the highest order. The Smith- sonian Institution has an important role to fulfill in meeting these responsibilities. Through its great museums, art galleries, research laboratories, and explorations, it seeks not only to preserve and document the full range of our history but also to interpret it to the public. Scientific and other scholarly research, educational exhibits, publication of new advances in knowledge, facilitation of worldwide interchange of published scientific and literary infonnation, and, with- in the Institution's resources, the fostering and stimulation of schol- arly endeavor — all are part of the work of today's Smithsonian, just as they have been during all the 114 years since its establislmient. A great museum must be more than a laboratory or a showcase. It must be a center of interpretation and inspiration for its millions of visitors. In these first paragraphs of this year's Smithsonian Report., it seems especially appropriate, therefore, to give particular attention to the growing significance of the Institution's museum exhibits. We are in the midst of extensive building and modernization programs which have already had their impact upon the visiting public ; and it may be salutary to analyze some of the factors involved. Both in April and again in May of this year more than a million people, by actual count, came to the old buildings of the Smithsonian. This does not include those who, during this time, visited the National Gallery of Art and the National Zoological Park. Never before in a single month have so many visitors come to the Smithsonian, or probably to any other museum complex in the world. In fact, as recently as 1953 the largest total monthly attendance was almost exactly one-half the figure for this year's banner months. What has caused this explosive increase? There seems to be no doubt that this amazing growth in public interest in the Smithsonian is due to the many new, vital, and effective renovated museum halls which have been opened to the public during the past few years. These new halls include the First Ladies Hall, the American Indian Hall, SECRETARY'S REPORT 6 the North American Mammals Hall, the Latin American Archeology Hall, the Bird Hall, the American Cultural History Hall, the Power Machinery Hall, the Second American Indian Hall, the Hall of Health, the Military History Hall, the Printing Arts Plall, the Gems and Minerals Halls, the Textile Hall, the Jade Koom, the World of Mammals Hall, and the Agricultural Hall. Each of these revi- talized exhibit areas is really a museum in itself. Each one alone has great visitor-attraction potential purely from an educational standpoint. Furthermore, in each of the modernized halls, the Smith- sonian has been guided by new general museum principles and has used a variety of means to achieve the objectives mentioned above which the curators and designers had in mind in plamiing and constructing the halls. The basic new pliilosophy of the nature of the museum that is illus- trated in each rejuvenated hall is that exhibits should be so presented that the serious visitor may be both interested and instructed. In each new hall a visitor may, of course, be casually entertained, but he also is exposed to accurate, well-organized, attractively ar- ranged segments of vital human knowledge. Thus, if he spends a moderate amount of time and effort in studying the sequences of objects and carefully reads the labels, he will be amply rewarded by a deeper and wider understanding of the complex world in which he lives. Aided by the modern exhibit techniques now avail- able, the story of man and his world unfolds before the visitor as he walks from hall to hall. These new exhibits are in marked contrast to the static displays of yesterday. In the old days the viewer may have been impressed by the abundance of material ex- hibited but, for the most part, was neither instructed nor motivated to future study. The Gems and Minerals Hall may be taken as an example of the effect of this new philosophy in dealing with a specific subject- matter field. The mineral collections of the Smithsonian, said to be the best of their kind in the world, have been built up during more than a century by gifts from interested friends all over the globe and by transfer to the Institution of outstanding specimens from the United States Geological Survey and other Federal bureaus. These collections are so extensive and important that many geolog- ical scientists come from every part of the country each year to work in our laboratories on special problems that can be solved only by the study of this material. The public exhibits in the new Gems and Minerals Hall, how- ever, represent only selected specimens from the total mineral collec- tions of the Smithsonian. The problem, therefore, was first to select 4 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1960 for exhibition the best and most significant items from this array of material and tlien to tell the fascinating and often romantic story of minerals and gems systematically and in such a way as to be in- teresting and meaningful both to the casual visitor and to the indi- vidual who already knows much about scientific geology. The millions of visitors who have already studied this new hall since it was opened to the public two years ago have seen, under almost ideal conditions of museum light, the outstanding specimens of the world's principal minerals. The chemical structure of each of the great mineral classes and the specific make-up of each specimen are shown. The physics of crystals, as well as many interesting facts about the geograpliical dis- tribution of minerals in the world's crust, is explained in labels and diagrams. Outstandingly valuable and beautiful gems are shown as examples of specific mineral groups. These displays, taken as a whole, are at once scientifically instructive and esthetically pleasing. This new hall, which an unthinking person might in advance picture as a mere collection of rocks, has thus become so attractive that on busy days it is sometimes even necessary for the visitors to form in lines and move quickly past some of the more popular exhibits. All this is in sharp contrast to the old days, when only the student who already had a real knowledge of mineralogy had the patience and the interest to stay in the old exhibit rooms and study in detail what the crowded cases contained. The nongeologist who came to the old mineral hall could hardly be expected to carry away with him any new understanding of geology as one of the great and humanly important sciences. For the novice there was no "plot" in the old form of exhibition, and its relation to his general knowl- edge was not indicated. It is no wonder that this "visual storage" type of exhibit often left little lasting impression. Today all this has changed. The static and repetitious tall, dark, wooden- framed cases are gone, and the science of mineral identification has been given a new meaning. The transformation that has taken place in this single mineral hall may be cited as illustrating the general change that has been brought about in the older Smithsonian buildings as the present program of modernization of exhibits, in all the new halls enu- merated above, has progressed. It is not accidental, therefore, that the number of visitors to the Smithsonian Institution has doubled in the past few yeai-s. What the Smithsonian now presents to its visitors has new attractiveness and new educational significance. In every museum the person who enters its doors profits by his prior preparation for understanding and by the ease with which he can see the objects that are on display. In the SECRETARY'S REPORT 5 new Smithsonian exhibits, every effort is made to make each presenta- tion logically clear and interesting so that the visitor will stop and read the explanatory labels. In this way, the Smithsonian exhibits improve the visitors' basic understanding of the natural history of America and of the world, of the history of many of the most impor- tant human arts and sciences, and of the teclmology that has made the modern world what it is. No one, for example, can go through the new American Cultural History Hall without seeing in a new way how Americans lived on this continent before the industrial revolution and how the coming of power machines transformed the basic ways of life of the Nation. Thus the question as to wliat visitors gain by coming to the Smith- sonian can be answered briefly: They gain in an understanding of the world in which they live and in their knowledge of America. Patriotism is a word that is sometimes misused, but who can doubt that any American citizen becomes more truly patriotic when he has knowledge of the basic natural resources of his country and of how these resources have been and are now used in the growth and main- tenance of our modern life? The increase in the number of visitors who come to the Smithsonian also indirectly reflects most favorably upon the basic attitudes of the citizens of our Nation today. It is inspiring to watch them passing in great streams through the doorways of our buildings. They come in order to see important exhibits, which they know in sum total can be viewed nowhere else in the world. Most of them surely leave with an understanding, which they could gain in no other way, of factors that have made modern life. Some of the new exliibit halls that are now open in the Smithsonian's old Arts and Industries Building have been so constructed, by the use of portable panels, that when the new Museum of History and Tech- nology is completed the whole display can be moved to the new build- ing without unnecessary delay. AVhen this is done, other exhibits of larger dimensions not at present on display will take their place in the old building. The professional staff is now working with exhibits experts in the preparation of other new halls so that there will be as little delay as possible in making the great new building an effective museum for the public as soon as its structure is complete. Later pages of this report describe in detail the work done during the year by the staff of the Bureau of American Ethnology, the Smith- sonian Astrophysical Observatory, the Freer Gallery of Art, the Na- tional Collection of Fine Arts, the National Air Museum, the Canal Zone Biological Area, the International Exchange Service, the Na- tional Zoological Park, and other specialized units of the Smithsonian. 6 Al>rNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1960 May the opportunity be taken here to express, on behalf of every- one connected with the Smithsonian Institution, gratitude to the Con- gress of the United States for making available funds for the addition of a much-needed east wing to the Natural History Building and also for the air-conditioning and renovation of this old and important building. For more than a quarter of a century, published records show that Congress has recognized that the facilities of the Natural History Building are overcrowded and inadequate for the important scientific and museum functions assigned to it. It is a source of special rejoicing, therefore, that the Institution is now being allowed to develop facilities so that it will be able to accomplish far better scientific work in this building than was feasible in the past. THE ESTABLISHMENT The Smithsonian Institution was created by act of Congress in 1846, in accordance with the terms of the will of James Smithson, of England, who in 1826 bequeathed his property to the United States of America "to found at Washington, under the name of the Smith- sonian Institution, an establislmient for the increase and diffusion of knowledge among men." In receiving the property and accepting the trust. Congress determined that the Federal Government was without authority to administer the trust directly, and, therefore, constituted an "establishment," whose statutory members are "the President, the Vice President, the Chief Justice, and the heads of the executive departments." THE BOARD OF REGENTS The membership of the Board of Regents remained unchanged during the current year. The roll of Regents at the close of the fiscal year was as follows: Chief Justice of the United States Earl Warren, Chancellor; Vice President Richard M. Nixon; members from the Senate : Clinton P. Anderson, J. William Fulbright, Leverett Saltonstall; members from the House of Representatives: Frank T. Bow, Overton Brooks, Clarence Cannon; citizen members: John Nicholas Brown, Arthur H. Compton, Robert V. Fleming, Crawford H. Greenewalt, Caryl P. Haskins, and Jerome C. Hunsaker. As has been customary in recent years, an informal dinner meeting, preceding the annual meeting, was held on the evening of January 14, 1960, in the main hall of the Smithsonian Building amid exhibits from the various divisions showing the most recent developments in the work of the Smithsonian bureaus. Dr. James F. Cahill spoke on "Tlie Chinese National Art Collection (Palace Collection) in SECRETARY'S REPORT 7 Taiwan"; Dr. Richard S. Cowan on "Smithsonian-Bredin Caribbean Expedition of 1959"; Dr. William C. Sturtevant on "Agriculture of the Seminole"; and Dr. Fred L. Wliipple on "Scientific Results from Satellite Tracking." The annual meeting was held on January 15, 1960. The Secretary presented his publislied annual report on the activities of the Insti- tution together with the 1959 Annual Report of the United States National Museum. The Chairman of the Executive and Permanent Committees of the Board, Dr. Robert V. Fleming, gave the financial report for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1959. In addition to the annual meeting, the Board of Regents met agam on May 4, 19G0. The Secretary presented a brief interim report, and the Chairman of the Executive and Permanent Committees of the Board presented a financial report. This meeting was followed by an inspection of some of the new exhibits of the Smithsonian. FINANCES A statement on finances, dealing particularly with Smithsonian private funds, will be found in the report of the executive committee of the Board of Regents, page 214. Funds appropriated to the Insti- tution for its regular operations for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1960, totaled $7,718,000. Besides this direct appropriation, the Institution received funds by transfer from other Government agencies as follows : From the District of Columbia for the National Zoological Park $1, 165, 200 From the National Park Service, Department of the Interior, for the River Basin Surveys 122, 055 VISITORS Visitors to the Smithsonian group of buildings on the Mall reached a total of 6,494,630, an all-time liigh and 143,000 more than the pre- vious year. April 1960 was the month of largest attendance, with 1,070,709; May 1960 second, with 1,007,442; July 1959 third, with 941,397. Table 1 gives a summai-y of the attendance records for the five buildings; table 2, groups of school children. These figures, when added to the 951,608 recorded at the National Gallery of Art and the 4,059,804 estimated at the National Zoological Park, bring the year's total number of visitors at the Institution to 11,506,042. 579421—61- ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 19 60 Table 1. — Visitors to certain Smithsonian buildings during the year ended June SO, 1960 Year and month Sniitlisonian Building Arts and Industries Building Natural History Building Aircraft Building Freer Building Total 1959 Julv 123, 735 126, 971 52, 279 54, 841 45, 549 29, 129 36, 498 38, 913 43, 924 174, 083 153, 306 160, 476 355, 316 377, 340 146, 086 158, 749 134, 169 71, 139 79, 557 99, 156 114, 124 448, 872 388, 022 307, 504 311,489 295, 634 117,026 109, 032 113,367 79. 592 86, 585 88, 217 106, 173 348, 552 333, 461 229, 619 135, 584 8,078 closed closed closed closed closed closed closed 83, 571 118,080 90, 755 15, 273 16, 183 8,662 7,460 6,379 5,080 6,675 4,946 6, 168 15, 631 14, 573 13, 047 941, 397 August September October November December 1960 January February March April 824, 206 324, 053 330, 082 299, 464 184, 940 209, 315 231, 232 270, 389 1, 070, 709 May 1, 007, 442 June 801, 401 Total 1, 039, 704 2, 680, 034 2, 218, 747 436, 068 120, 077 6, 494, 630 Table 2. — Groxips of schoolchildren visiting the Smithsonian Institution during tht year ended June SO, 1960 Year and month Number c( children Number of grotips Year and month Number of children Number of groups 1939 July 21, 072 8,287 3, 159 16, 776 19, 292 10, 2^8 675 311 163 499 515 290 1960 January February March 8,898 15, 236 31, 626 78, 896 94, 807 35, 723 289 August 378 September October ._ 807 April 1,658 November December - May June 2,052 812 Total 344, 020 8,449 Report on the United States National Museum Sm : I have the honor to submit the following report on the condition and operations of the U.S. National Museum for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1960 : COLLECTIONS Durmg the year 2,014,443 specimens were added to the national collections and distributed among the eight departments as follows: Anthropology, 57,202; zoology, 346,610; botany, 56,989; geology, 33,079; science and teclinology, 1,433; arts and manufactures, 1,075; civil history, 1,514,274; and Armed Forces history, 3,780. Included in the above total were 1,488,864 stamps, 215,686 insects, and 75,014 marine invertebrates. Most of the specimens were acquired as gifts from individuals or as tranfers from Government departments and agencies. The Annual Report of the Museum, published as a separate document, contains a detailed list of the year's acquisitions, of which the more important are summarized below. Catalog entries in all departments now total 54,007,823. Anthropology. — Among the items transferred to the Smithsonian Institution were a number of interesting ethnological objects presented to President Dwight D. Eisenhower during his recent eastern good- will tour. Included was a full-size Iranian desk of Khatamkari inlay made by the foremost craftsmen in the reign of Reza Shad and used by him and the present Shah. An excellent Mende (Sierra Leone) helmet mask, complete with raffia fringe, of the type used in initiating girls into the Sande Society, was presented by Mrs. Virginia Pollak. Two hundred specimens from the Wai Wai Indians, living in British Guiana, collected by Dr. CliiTord Evans, associate curator, and Dr. Betty J. Meggers, research associate, division of archeology, were turned over to the division of ethnology. Included in this unique collection are wooden stools, cassava graters, pottery vessels, articles of clothing and ornament, tools, weapons, and utensils. Mrs, E. E. Daman of Louisville, Ky., presented a fine Chinese imperial dragon robe of the late Ch'ing dynasty. An excellent walrus- ivory cribbage board, carved in relief with human and animal motifs, collected near Nome, Alaska, was received from Mr. and Mrs. W. De Witt of Erie, Pa. Articles of Korean costumes made of colorful 10 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1960 silk brocade with subdued designs were donated by Lt. Col. and Mrs. G. W. Kelley of Alexandria, Va. A special effort was made by the division of physical antliropology to incorporate in the collections the backlog of River Basin Surveys materials transferred from the Bureau of American Etlmology. The most outstanding transfer consists of 148 skeletons from the Sully site in the Oahe Reservoir, S. Dak., occupied in prehistoric times by the Arikara tribe. An important collection of 167 plaster-of-paris face masks of various peoples, mainly from Africa, acquired from Dr. Lidio Cipriani of Florence, Italy, help to fill in the ethnic gaps in the division's large group of face masks and busts. The Cipriani col- lection will also provide masks for display units in the exliibits mod- ernization program. A new cast of the skull and lower jaw of the Skhiil V, one of the Palestine Neanderthal specimens, was received as an exchange from the Peabody Museum, Harvard University. The Wenner-Gren Fomidation for Anthropological Research presented a cast of the upper jaw of Zinjanthropus hoisei, a lower Pleistocene australopithecine from Tanganyika. A bust of Dr. Ales Hrdlicka, late curator of the division of physical anthropology, sculptured by Milan Knobloch, was received as a gift from the National Museum Society in Prague, Czechoslovakia. A total of 56,271 specimens was added to the collections of the division of archeology during the year. Objects from a prehistoric Oklahoma mound consisting of rare textiles, engraved conch shells, pottery vessels, native copper artifacts, pearls, stone pipes, and chipped stone comprised the outstanding acquisition. Other items came from the Spiro Mound site in Le Flore County, dating probably from the 13th or 14th centuries of the Christian Era and representing a high point in the ceremonial art of the Southeastern United States. Zoology. — The division of mammals received 4,242 specimens com- prising 50 accessions. Nearly half of this number came from Panama and the Canal Zone under a collecting program being carried out by Associate Curator Charles O. Plandley in cooperation with the Gorgas Memorial Laboratory, units of the Department of Defense, and also individuals. Through Dr. Robert E. Kuntz, of the U.S. Naval Medi- cal Research Unit No. 2, more than 300 mammals were received from Formosa. Dr. Robert Traub, of the Army Research and Development Command, contributed important collections from Malaya, Borneo, and western Mexico. The division also received specimens obtained in Indiana by Russell E. Mumford, Dwight M. Lindsay, and Ralph D. Kirkpatrick; in Lancaster County, Va., by C. O. Handley, Louis T. Dymond, and D. I. Rhymer ; in Maryland by C. P. Lingebach ; and in New Hampshire by Bernard Feinstein. Two lots of Panamanian birds, comprising 1,313 bird skins, 93 skeletons, and 1 carcass, all collected by Dr. A. Wetmore, were ac- SECRETARY'S REPORT 11 quired by the division of birds. Other significant accessions were 749 skins, 43 skeletons, and 1 alcoholic specimen of North American birds transferred from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service ; 246 birds from Formosa transferred from the U.S. Naval Medical Research Unit No. 2; 123 bird skins from Colombia by exchange with the Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Bogota; and 236 birds from Bechuanaland and Southern Rhodesia obtained by purchase. Small but noteworthy lots of reptile and amphibian material were received from areas previously unrepresented in the national col- lections. The most interesting of these are: 14 reptiles from Saudi Arabia, donated by Dr. R. L. Peffly ; 6 reptiles from Swan Island near Honduras, transferred from the Coast and Geodetic Survey; and 23 specimens of Leurognathus martnorafus^ a very rare species of sala- mander, from Georgia, the gift of Dr. B. S. Martof. During the year 8,500 fresh- water fishes, collected by W. R. Taylor and R. H. Kanazawa in the southern Appalacliians, and 2,285 deep- sea fishes from the western Atlantic, transferred from the Fish and Wildlife Service, were accessioned. A 15-foot thresher shark, a cast of which will be placed on exhibition, was donated by Harvey Bullis, Jr. This shark is unique because of its long tail. The scale-insect (coccid) collection deposited by the Department of Entomology, Cornell University, estimated to contain about 50,000 specimens including many types, comprised the most important acces- sion in the division of insects. The John S. Caldwell collection of nearly 13,000 lantemflies and psyllids and the Mark Robinson col- lection of 16,210 scarab beetles were also acquired. About 16,969 miscellaneous insects from various parts of the world were given by N. L. H. Krauss; O. L. Cartwright donated an additional 10,000 scarab beetles from his personal collection, and he also collected 2,774 speci- mens for the Museum; Dr. K. V. Krombein contributed 3,467 speci- mens of mostly Hymenoptera and Lepidoptera; and Dennis E. Puleston presented 2,764 miscellaneous arthropods collected by him in Tahiti. This fiscal year was a record-breaking one for accessions of marine invertebrates. The most important and comprehensive of these are 6,900 shrimps and other invertebrates from the tropical and sub- tropical western Atlantic transferred from the Fish and Wildlife Service ; a lot of 12,475 Antarctic invertebrates received from the Navy Hydrographic Office; about 2,400 identified medusae from the Arctic Ocean received from the Department of the Navy ; more than 18,000 crustaceans from northern Alaska presented by Dr. E. E. Reed of Colorado State University; and over 24,000 crustaceans and other invertebrates, mostly from Lake Pontchartrain, received from Tulane University. 12 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1960 The Frances Lea Chamberlain bequest provided funds for the pur- chase of the C. R. Laws collection of about 12,500 mollusks assembled by one of New Zealand's outstanding malacologists. The second largest accession was a gift from W. E. Old, Jr., of 8,200 mollusks, representing many rare and otherwise unportant species. Two note- worthy collections of Pacific marine mollusks were received, totaling about 3,900 specimens. Botany. — Among the important plant collections received as ex- changes were 3,793 specimens from the Museum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris, including 3,050 ferns, many of them isotypes, and valuable historic collections such as those of L'Herminier from Guada- loupe, Leprieur from French Guiana, and Bourgeau from Mexico; 5,808 plants of Indonesia from Herbarium Bogoriense, Bogor, Indo- nesia; and 2,582 photographs of type specimens received from the Chicago Natural History Museum. Other collections include 896 specimens acquired from the Texas Research Foundation, Renner, Tex., and collected by Dr. C. L. Lundell and Percy Gentle in Texas, Mexico, and Central America ; 587 specimens received from the Gray Herbarium, Harvard University, and collected in Costa Rica by Miss Edith Scammon and in Peru by Dr. and Mrs. Rolla M. Tryon; and 162 plants of Israel from the Hebrew University, Jerusalem. Gifts included 4,498 plants collected on Trinidad, Tobago, and other West Indian islands by Dr. Richard S. Cowan on the 1959 Smithsonian-Bredin Caribbean Expedition; 5,476 plants presented by Dr. Jose Cuatrecasas, collected by him in Colombia ; 1,226 excellent specimens of Pennsylvania plants given by Muhlenberg College, Allen- town, Pa.; 396 specimens, largely ferns, constituting the personal herbarium of the late Frank N. Irving, received from Mrs. Florence Skougaard, Washington, D.C.; and 855 specimens collected in Santa Catarina, Brazil, by Rev. Pe. Raulino Reitz and R. Klein, received from the Herbario "Barbosa Rodrigues," Santa Catarina. Curator C. V. Morton collected 1,395 plants in boreal Quebec and Ontario while on a field trip preceding the IX International Botani- cal Congi-ess at Montreal; and Robert R. Ireland obtained on field trips 2,678 mosses from Virginia, Missouri, and Kentucky. Trans- ferred from the U.S. Geological Survey were 1,868 plants of Polynesia collected by Dr. F. R. Fosberg and 1,348 plants of Alaska collected by Dr. L. A. Spetzman. Obtained from Dr. M. Jacobs, Leiden, Netherlands, were 611 plants collected by him in Borneo, and from the University of Zurich 615 specimens from New Caledonia. Geology. — Among the important gifts received in the division of mineralogy and petrology are: A 740.25-carat carbonado diamond, French Equatorial Africa, from Diamond Distributors, Inc., the largest mass of black diamond in any museum in the United States and SECRETARY'S REPORT 13 possibly in the world; kurnakovite, Boron, Calif., from Arch Oboler; and a fine Australian opal weighing 25,5 carats, a part of the original Washington A. Roebling collection, from Mrs. Donald Roebling. Outstanding among the mineral specimens received in exchange are : Arsenopyrite from Mexico, metaheinrichite from Oregon, inderite from California, the Ahlfeld collection of Bolivian minerals, and a selection from the Pennypacker collection of minerals of Cumberland, England. Newly described species acquired in exchange are : Stron- tioginorite, Germany; orthochamosite, Czechoslovakia; gastunite, Arizona; eardleyite, Utah; belyankinite and labuntsovite, U.S.S.R. About 457 specimens were added to the Roebling collection by pur- chase from the Roebling Fund and by exchange. Among these the following are outstanding: Danburite, Mexico; apophyllite and spodumene, Brazil; and tourmaline, California. Among the speci- mens of outstanding exhibition quality added to the Canfield collection by purchase are: Corundum, Tanganyika; hemimorphite, Mexico; opal, Australia; hubnerite, Colorado; stibnite, California; and the newly described yoderite. Gems acquired for the Isaac Lea collection by purchase through the Chamberlain Fund include a cat's-eye sillimanite from South Carolina; a tourmaline cat's-eye from Brazil weighing 76 carats; a 29-carat yellow apatite from Mexico; a 375-carat rose quartz from Brazil; a cut stone of microlite weighing 3.7 carats from Virginia; and a 48.2-carat colorless zircon from Ceylon. Several meteorites new to the collection were received in exchange : Lillaverke, Varik, Laughalsen, Muonionalusta II, Ekeby, Follinge, Hedaskoga, and Homark, all from Sweden; Ramsdorf, Germany; Raco, Argentina; and Aswan, Egypt. A portion of the Al Rais, Saudi Arabia, meteorite was received as a gift from the Saudi Arabia Government, and W. S. Houston donated a portion of the Winkler, Kans., fall. The most important gifts received by the division of invertebrate paleontology and paleobotany are : 600 Cambrian invertebrate fossils including types from the Wind River Mountains from Dr. Christina L. Balk ; 2 lots of Cretaceous and Tertiary Foraminifera from Trini- dad donated by Dr. Hans M. Bolli ; 70 figured specimens of pelagic Foraminifera from the north and equatorial Pacific Ocean from Dr. John S. Bradshaw; 2,025 invertebrate fossils from eastern Fiji from the University of Rochester; 226 invertebrate fossils from MacKenzie Valley, Northwest Territories, Canada, from Alfred Lenz ; 9 giant Eocene oysters from North Carolina from Eston Miller; 44 holotypes of Foraminifera from the Cretaceous and Lower Tertiary of New Jersey from R. K. Olsson ; 66 Eocene crabs from Venezuela 14 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1960 from Dr. W. M. Furnish; and 13 type specimens of Mississippian sponges from Montana from Dr. R. C. Gutscliick. Funds from the income of the Walcott bequest permitted the pur- chase of 37 invertebrate fossils from Czechoslovakia, 1,095 specimens from the Pemisylvanian of Oklahoma, 189 invertebrates from Nor- mandy, France, 35 rare brachiopods from Sicily, 1,146 Mesozoic echinoids from France, and 507 invertebrate fossils from Belgium. Important exchanges received tlirough the year included 160 Devo- nian invertebiute fossils from Northwest Territories, Canada, from Dr. W. G. E. Caldwell ; 115 fossil moUusks and corals from the Island of Pavuvu in the South Pacific from James E. Conkin; and 1,100 Tertiary invertebrate fossils from Japan from Tohoku Imperial University. Paleontological fieldwork by Dr. C. L. Gazin and Franklin Pearce under the Walcott Fund resulted in the collection of 200 fossil mammals from various Eocene strata of southwestern Wyoming. Among other outstanding additions to the vertebrate paleontology collections received as gifts are two record-sized tracks of carnivorous dinosaurs from Upper Cretaceous rocks in Utah, presented by the Kaiser Steel Corporation, and a unique skull of the Cretaceous fish Anamogmius zitteli donated by Dr. J. Lloyd Watkins, Wichita FaUs, Tex. Science and technology. — An outstanding collection of 21 astrolabes was acquired by the division of physical sciences through the gener- osity of the International Business Machines Corporation. These instruments, representing the craftsmanship of Persia, India, North Africa, and Europe, date from the 13th to the 19th centuries. An equally elegant 16th-century instrument, presented by Lessing J. Rosenwald, is a folding sundial and compass to which several engraved maps and travelers' itineraries of central Europe have been added. Other important additions included the magnetometer used by Alexander Dallas Bache at Girard College (1840-45), from the Car- negie Institution; the fiirst cash register of James Ritty (1879), from the National Cash Register Co. ; several examples of the first nylon produced, from E. I. du Pont de Nemours & Co.; and a replica of the experimental furnace used by Dr. Alwin IVIittasch in coimection with the development of the commercial synthesis of ammonia (1909- 12), from the Badische Anilin and Soda-Fabrik AG. The tools and machine of the famous American instrument firm of Wm. Bond & Son, Boston, were acquired by the division of mechan- ical and civil engineering. Included are a chronometer dated 1812, the first made in this country, and an example of William Bond's important invention, the chronograph. Other important acquisitions are a rare wooded-bed engine lathe of about 1830 and several lathes SECRETARY'S REPORT 15 and associated machine-shop fixtures of about 10 years later. These items were located in an abandoned Rhode Island shop through the help of Helen I. Fraser, of the New London Historical Society, and James Kleinschmidt, of Mystic Seaport, Conn. Among a number of significant builder's half-models received by the division of transportation were two Cape Cod catboats from Marthas Vineyard, the gift of Manuel S. Roberts. The collections of the section of land transportation were augmented by the locomotive "Pioneer" and a Camden & Amboy Railroad coach from the Penn- sylvania Railroad Co. The division of electricity received from the National Bureau of Standards several wavemeters used in the standardization of radio equipment in the 1920's, and from the University of Michigan a Fleming cynometer and several early magnetrons. The Massachusetts Institute of Technology donated the G. H. Clark collection of docu- ments and photographs on the history of radio. Among the accessions acquired by the division of medical sciences are a 13th-century metal mortar and pestle made in Nishapur, Persia; an 18th-century microscope made by Dollond of London; a 19th- century set of brass Troy nested weights; and one of the earliest types of ionization chambers designed for practicing radiologists. Arts and Tnanufactures. — Among specially noteworthy fabrics ac- quired by the division of textiles are a collection of Jacquard-woven pictures, a 19th-century warp-printed scene requiring over 100 blocks to produce one repeat, and a roller-printed portrait on silk, all pre- sented by Arthur E. Wullschleger. An interesting lot of 19th-cen- tury plush, beaded, and embroidered fabrics was presented by Dr. and Mrs. Leonard Carmichael. George C. Claghorn donated a hand- woven linen tablecloth. An unusual damask tablecloth, woven in 1860, with scenes from stories in the Old Testament, was presented by Mrs. Loren E. Souers. The first pair of experimental nylon hose made in 1937 and several bobbins of the early experimental nylon yam were deposited by E. I. du Pont de Nemours & Co. From Mrs. Dwight D. Eisenhower the division of ceramics and glass received a 13-piece porcelain tea set, produced about 1770 in Wiirtemberg, Gennany, by the Ludwigsburg factory, one of the great- est of the 18th-century porcelain manufactories. The set was pre- sented to President and Mrs. Eisenhower by His Excellency Theodor Heuss, President of the Federal Republic of Germany. Another gen- erous gift of 102 pieces of American and European glass was received from Mrs. Clara W. Berwick. An outstanding art object in this group is a dark-blue glass plate with an enameled decoration taken from the 12th-century mosiac in one of the domes of St. Mark's Cathe- dral in Venice. 16 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1960 Among the particularly fine prints acquired by the division of graphic arts are an impression of a chiaroscuro woodcut, "David and Goliath," by one of the earliest masters of this art, Ugo da Carpi (1455-1523) ; two color etchings by Johan Taylor (1650-1700), the earliest pioneer in this medium; a large color mezzotint, "Cupid Shaping His Bow," by Edouard Gautier-Dagoty (1717-1785); and a chiaroscuro woodcut, "Pluto," by the Dutch artist Hendrick Goltzius (1558-1616). Outstanding gifts of the year included a collection of 255 portrait engravings by European artists of the 16th to 19th cen- turies presented by Col. and JMrs. Robert P. Hare, III, representing the work of such artists as Wierex, Bolswert, Leoni, Muller, Audran, and Nanteuil, and includhig contemporaiy portraits of such person- ages as Philip II, Charles I, Galileo, Sir Thomas Chaloner, and Thomas Carlyle. Several specimens representative of the development of oilfield exploration equipment were acquired by the division of industrial cooperation, one of these being a 1925 Suess torsion balance. A port- able pipeline pumping unit as developed by S. S. Smith of the Shell Oil Co., and first used in the North African campaign of 1942-43, was transferred from the Department of the Army. Among the items acquired for the hall of nuclear energy were a diffusion cloud chamber and a neutrine detection chamber, transferred with the co- operation of the National Science Foundation. Everett L. DeGolyer, Jr., presented a memento of his late father, Dr. Everett Lee De- Golyer, a pioneer in American oilfield development and a former Regent of the Smithsonian Institution. This electromagnetic detec- tor for reflection seismographic exploration was developed by Dr. J. Clarence Karchcr with Dr. DeGolyer's encouragement and is sym- bolic of the predominance of this technique in oilfield discovery since 1925. A large number of farm implements and machines were acquired by the division of agriculture and forest products, many of which came from farms in Ohio. One of these is an early type of horse-drawn check-row cornplanter, donated by Clayton Kantner. Another is the Hart Parr tractor donated by the Oliver Corporation. This ma- chine is the third tractor made by the Hart Parr Co., which commenced manufacturing in 1902. It symbolizes the switch from steam to gasoline on American farms and commemorates the general adoption of the name "tractor" as descriptive of gasol ine traction engines. A com- panion piece to the big tractor is a Wallis Model K tractor donated by Massey-Ferguson, Inc. This model appeared in 1919 and is a modi- fication of the 1913 TVallis Cub, the first of the frameless tractors. Another item is a McCormick "daisy" self-rake reaper donated by the Farmers' Jkluseum of the New York State Historical Association. SECRETARY'S REPORT 17 Civil history.— T\\Q division of political history received a number of interesting donations. President Dwiglit D. Eisenhower presented a group of intricately carved figures, chariots, and horses, in ivory and sandalwood, representing a scene from the Mahabbarata, given to him by the President of India. Among the items given this year by Lincoln Isliam were the gold-and-enamel bracelet worn by Mrs. Lincoln as First Lady and a black onyx lapel watch worn by her after the death of her husband. The dessert plates from the state china used at the White House during the administration of President James K. Polk were given by Mr. and Mrs. B. Woodruff Weaver. Additions to the collection of American period costumes included a wedding dress of about 1800, given by Mrs. Susan Iglehart; an 18th-century woman's brocade caraco jacket, presented by Mrs. James L. Collins, Jr. ; and two dresses worn in Maryland in Colonial days, donated by Miss Katherine K. Scott. From the family of Harry T. Peters the division of cultural history received the America-on-stone collection, comprising nearly 2,000 lithograplis by printmakers other than Currier and Ives. Political cartoons, sporting pictures, and urban views are only a few of the many classifications in which the collection has authoritative repre- sentation. The Cooper Union Museum donated a group of 89 musical instruments, predominantly plucked-string instruments such as lutes and guitars, which were needed to supplement existing col- lections. An important transfer from the National Park Service comprises 37 pieces of mid- 19th-century cast-iron architectural ele- ments from the waterfront district of St. Louis. Among important accessions received in the division of philately and postal history is the A. H. Wilheim collection of United States plate number and position blocks of stamps of the period between 1894 and 1958. Nearly every printing plate used in the production of United States stamps is represented in all positions. An excellent reference collection of Japan's 1-sen value postage stamps of 1872 was donated by L. W. Christenson. John P. V. Heinmuller presented one album of Zeppelin covers, completing the transaction started last year. B. H. Homan, Jr., transferred his previously lent specimens of Saxony stamps as a gift. Supreme Court Justice John M. Harlan donated a considerable number of early United States covers extracted from the papers of his grandfather, Supreme Court Justice John M. Harlan (1833-1911). The most important accession received by the division of numis- matics is the collection of Russian coins and medals struck in the name of Czar Peter the Great, donated by Willis H. Du Pont. Mr. Du Pont also presented the 11 volumes of Grand Duke Mikhailovich's monu- mental and very rare monograph on Russian coins. The Grand 18 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1060 Duke's collection comprises a virtually complete representation of Russian bronze and silver coins struck since 1700, paralleled only by the Hermitage collection in Leningrad. Another noteworthy ac- cession is the anonymous donation of 736 Canadian silver and copper coins, including the rare and famous 50-cent piece of 1921 formerly owned by King Farouk of Egypt. Armed Forces history. — One of the three original 49-star flags prepared in advance of the new design was presented to the division of military history by President Dwight D. Eisenhower. Two ex- ceptionally fine swords owned by Gen. Benjamin Lincoln of the Con- tinental Army were received from one of his descendants, Mrs. Henry K. Cowen. One was carried by the General during the Revolution and the other w^as presented to him by General Washington after General Lincoln received the surrender of Lord Cornwallis at Yorktown. Outstanding among the naval material received during the year was a collection of 134 builder's half-models of 19th-century war- ships, constituting a veritable national treasure by virtue of its ex- ceptional scope, from the United States Naval Academy. Other notable accessions included models of the U.S.S. Pennsylvania (the birthplace of carrier aviation), the aircraft carrier Shangri-La^ and the dirigible Akron ^ 13 oil paintings illustrating United States Coast Guard operations in World War II, from the Treasury Department ; and a collection of relics of the Spanish American War and World War II, from the United States Coast Guard Academy. The collections were further enhanced by the purchase of the W. Stokes Kirk collection of United States military insignia and accouterments, totaling approximately 3,000 items. It is considered by many authorities to be unmatched in scope, volume, and rarity. EXPLORATION AND nELDWORK In connection with his participation in the 75th anniversary meet- ing of the Ohio Historical Society, April 27-May 2, at Columbus, F. M. Setzler, head curator of anthropology, examined several impor- tant archeological sites in Ohio, including Momid City, the Hopeton Works, Cedar Banks Mound, and the site of the original Adena Mound on the estate of the first Governor of Ohio, Thomas Worthington. While at Columbus he selected specimens from the study collections of the Ohio State Museum, to be cast for use in the moderni- zation of the Smithsonian's North American Archeology Hall. Dr. Waldo R. Wedel, curator of archeology, represented the Smithsonian Institution at the Darwin Centennial Celebration, held at the University of Chicago, November 2-1—26. This was an out- standing occasion, being attended by worldwide experts in various SECRETARY'S REPORT 19 fields of evolutionary philosophy who conducted and participated in panel meetings. The published results are sure to be of interest to all biologists and other scientists concerned in any way with evolution and its background. Subsequently, Dr. Wedel attended the 17th Plains Archeological Conference, in Lincoln, Nebr., where he reestablished contacts with many of the workers in the area of his principal interest, conferred with various archeologists of the River Basin Surveys, and examined recent archeological collections. Early in May Dr. Wedel attended the 25th annual meeting of the Society for American Archeology, at New Haven, Comi., presenting a paper on the progress of research in Great Plains prehistory. He also studied various important manuscripts in the Western Ameri- cana collections of the Yale University Library particularly re- lating to the Missouri River region and the Black Hills. Dr. Clifford Evans, associate curator of archeology, and Dr. Betty J. Meggers, research associate, late in December attended the 58th annual meeting of the American Anthropological Association in Mexico City, where they delivered a paper on "Archeological Evalua- tion of Obsidian Dating." The gathering in Mexico City, they report, had the flavor of an international meeting, which left a favorable impression on delegates who seldom attend anthropological meet- ings outside the limits of the United States. The Mexicans were considerate hosts, and all visitors were highly impressed with the Institute of Anthropology and History and the various museums and exhibits in the Mexico City area. Following the meeting, Drs. Evans and Meggers spent several weeks in Mexico, examining arche- ological collections and sites in Tabasco, Chiapas, and Oaxaca, as well as the environs of Mexico City. Dr. Evans arranged to have certain important type collections sent to the Smithsonian, saw some archeological sites of major importance in Mesoamerica, familiar- ized himself with study and exhibit collections in several regional museums, and made contact with many colleagues. Dr. Evans attended the 25th annual meeting of the Society for American Archeology at New Haven, Conn., May 4-7, and consulted with various archeologists involved in the Institute of Andean Re- search program seeking archeological connections between North and South America and Middle America. This group, including Drs. Evans and Meggei-s, will undertake an elaborate research program in the region during the next few years. Dr. Evans and Dr. Meggers left on June 25 for extended study in various European museums, where they propose to do research on comparative archeological collections from North and South America. Tliis work is undertaken in connection with their long-term program of archeological survey and excavation in the tropical forest region 20 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1960 of South America and is partially supported by a grant from the American Philosophical Society. At a meeting of the American Oriental Society in New Haven, Conn., late in March, Dr. Gus Van Beek, associate curator of archeol- ogy, delivered a paper on one of his research projects, "The Multiple- piece Technique of the South Arabian Potter." While in New Haven he also studied the exhibits of the Peabody Museum and the Babylo- nian Collection in the Sterling Memorial Library, acquiring infor- mation about the technique of preparing impressions of seals which will be useful in the modernization of the Old World archeological exhibits. In May he worked in the library of the Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, preparing a bibliography of major books and articles dealing with excavated archeological sites in the Republic of Sudan. This work has been useful in his research on the archeological potentialities of that part of the Sudan involved in the Nubia Salvage Project. Dr. S. H. Riesenberg, curator of ethnology, at the end of December attended the American Anthropological Association meeting in Mexico City, where he delivered a paper on "Political Advancement on Ponape : Theory and Fact." Subsequent to the meetings he examined collections in several museums and visited the archeological sites at Teotihuacan and the village of Toluca. Between February 28 and March 8, Dr. Riesenberg furthered his Pacific ethnological studies by working at the Houghton Library of Harvard University and the Marine Historical Society and Whaling Museum at New Bedford, Mass. He was particularly concerned with examining and abstract- ing ethnohistorical materials from 19th-century manuscript records of tlie American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions. At New Bedford there exist similar records in the important collections of logs, journals, and manuscripts on early Pacific voyages. These library studies have enabled Dr. Riesenberg to make further progress on his projected ethnohistorical study of the Carolines, which is part of his analysis of Micronesian culture. Dr. Gordon D. Gibson, associate curator of ethnology, early in September did research at the American ]\Iuseum of Natural History and the Museum of Primitive Art in New York. Subsequently he attended the meetings of the African Studies Associations at Boston University and did research in the study collections of the Boston Museum of Fine Ai-ts and the Peabody Museum of American Archeology and Etlinology at Harvard University. The collection of African ethnological materials at the American Museum is an extensive one, and Dr. Gibson is discussing the possibility of arranging exchanges that would permit the Smithsonian Institution to improve its collections and provide material for a new exhibit hall in this SECRETARY'S REPORT 21 field. He especially studied collections from South West Africa and Angola, a region he expects to visit in 1960. Late in December Dr. Gibson attended the annual meeting of the American Anthropological Association in Mexico City and presented a paper to the session on African ethnology on "Levels of Residence among the Herero." Subsequently, with several other delegates, he went to Palenque in Chiapas Province, an area of great interest anthropologically. The visitors examined the famous pyramid con- taining a tomb which is said to destroy the distinction formerly drawn between Egyptian and American pyramids. Until the dis- covery of this tomb, it had been stated that American pyramids were never tombs, but only the bases for religious structures. Dr. Gibson also examined anthropological collections in Mexico City. In preparing for his forthcoming field trip Dr. Gibson visited New York and Cambridge, Mass., in March to investigate sources of field equipment. In Cambridge he consulted with Laurence Marshall, director of several expeditions in southern Angola and South West iVfrica, about problems of field maintenance and motion-picture work in those areas. Dr. Eugene I. Knez, associate curator of ethnology, attended the annual meeting of the Association for Asian Studies in New York City, April 10-12. The scientific papers dealt with the people and cultures of southern, southeastern, and eastern Asia. In Cleveland, following this meeting. Dr. Ivnez examined the pipe collection of Dr. Leo Stoor and visited staff members of the Cleveland Museum of Natural History to discuss possible exchange of ethnological material. Early in December, Dr. T. Dale Stewart, curator of physical an- thropology, visited Guatemala to confer with staff members and advisers of the Institute of Nutrition of Central America and Panama. The problem involved was the planning of a 5-year program directed toward the investigation of atherosclerosis in Latin America popu- lations. Dr. Stewart participated as a consultant in matters of race. On December 26 Dr. Stewart went to Mexico City primarily to attend the meetings of the American Anthropological Association, where he delivered two papers — "The Evidence of Phj'sical Anthro- pology Bearing on the Peopling of the New World" and "The Chi- nook Sign of Freedom: a Unique Record of Cranial Defonnity." With other anthropologists he joined a tour to the Mayan ruin of Palenque, a ruin which makes it easier for an anthropologist to com- prehend the problems surrounding the rise and fall of the Mayan civilization. He also visited Lake Patzcuaro in western Mexico, where he was able to observe living Tarascan Indians, a group which has figured prominently of late in the literature of physical anthropology. 22 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1960 In continuation of aicheological research in Iraq, Dr. Stewart de- parted for that country on June 1. The 1960 Shanidar Expedition, jointly sponsored by the Smithsonian Institution and Columbia Uni- versity, extends the collaboration between Dr. Stewart and Dr. Ralph S. Solecki, formerly on the staff of the division of archeology. Dr. Stewart plans to work at the Iraq Museum in Baghdad restoring, casting, and studying the adult skeletal remains recovered in 1957 by Dr. Solecki in the Mousterian layer of Shanidar Cave, and will then join the rest of the party at the Cave to help remove other remains. Several members of the staff of the department of botany, Dr. Ly- man B. Smith, Dr. Richard S. Cowan, Dr. Velva E. Rudd, C. V. Mor- ton, and Dr. Mason E. Hale, Jr., with Dr. A. C. Smith, Director of the Museum of Natural History, participated in the IX International Botanical Congress in Montreal in August. This important Congress, which convenes only once every five years, in 1959 attracted more than 3,000 botanists from all parts of the world and was held in simul- taneous sessions at McGill University and the University of Mont- real. It was preceded from August 16 to 19 by meetings of the section of nomenclature, which involved several of the Smithsonian's botanists. In May and June Dr. Lyman B. Smith, curator of phanerogams, visited several major herbaria in California in pursuit of his studies of the plant families Bromeliaceae, Xyridaceae, and Velloziaceae. He also studied a number of collections of living Bromeliaceae and of the genus Begonia in Los Angeles and conferred with various mem- bers of the Bromeliad Society and the American Begonia Society. In June Dr. Richard S. Cowan, associate curator of phanerogams, visited several American museums to observe natural-history exhibits, to test audio-commentary systems, and to study exhibition techniques in connection with the proposed Hall of Plant Life at the Smithsonian. Continuing her studies of the family Leguminosae, Dr. Velva E. Rudd, associate curator of phanerogams, visited several herbaria during the year. Following her attendance at the IX International Botanical Congress in Montreal, she spent three days at the New York Botanical Garden examining types and other specimens of genera closely related to Ormosia^ and also the available ^lexican material of papilionate legumes of the tribe Sophoreae. She made similar studies of the same groups at the herbarium of the Chicago Natural History Museum in connection with her attendance at the annual meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science in December. In May she spent three weeks at California herbaria examining plant specimens and accumulating data pertaining to a treatment of the papilionate legumes of Mexico. In continuation of his studies of the large family Melastomataceae, Dr. J. J. "VYurdack, associate curator of phanerogams, visited the New SECRETARY'S REPORT 23 York Botanical Garden in May, giving particular attention to the family as represented in the state of Santa Catarina, Brazil. To facilitate his continuing studies of the Melastomataceae, he borrowed numerous specimens for more detailed investigations. Durmg the first part of August, prior to his attendance at the IX International Botanical Congress in Montreal, C. V. Morton, curator of ferns, participated in a field trip to James Bay. This included explorations in the Laurentian forest, the boreal forest of northern Ontario, the Hudson Bay lowlands, and a part of the Great Lakes forest region. A collection of nearly 900 numbers, plus many dupli- cates, was obtained for the U.S. National Herbarium. Following his attendance at tiie Congress, Mr. Morton spent 10 days in the high Sierra Nevada of California collecting specimens for the Museum. Subsequently he visited herbaria in the San Francisco region, exam- ining fern collections and conferring with staff members. Toward the end of the fiscal year Mr. Morton left for Europe to pursue his studies of various groups of ferns in several herbaria, begmning in the herbarium of the Museum National d'llistoire Naturelle in Paris. Between March 9 and April 11 Dr. Mason E. Hale, Jr., acting curator of cryptogams, journeyed to southern Mexico to collect lichens for a monographic revision of Parmella. This expedition was sponsored in part by iho, National Science Foundation, and Dr. Hale was accompanied by Thomas R. Soderstrom, a graduate student from Yale University. During a 30- day period of uninterrupted work, the two botanists traveled about 2,500 miles in Veracruz, Chiapas, Oaxaca, and Michoacan, collecting approximately 2,200 nmiibers of cryptogams with many duplicates. This was the first significant exploration for cryptogams in southern Mexico, and many new dis- tribution records, as well as discoveries of new taxa, were made. The specimens, which are now being prepared for study in Washmg- ton, will serve as a basis for specialized studies of cryptogams of the region and particularly as a partial basis for Dr. Hale's revision of the large and widespread genus Parmella. During the first three days of Jmie Dr. Hale visited the herbarium of Duke University to study lichen specimens and consult with colleagues on mutual prob- lems concerning the genus Parmelia^ m connection with his mono- graphic revision. In mid- July, Robert R. Ireland, Jr., assistant curator of crypto- gams, collected cryptogams for the National Museum particularly in the Highlands area in the soutliwestern corner of North Carolina, and in the Great Smoky Mountains National Park on the North Carolina-Tennessee border. He obtained more than 800 specimens, mostly bryophytes, which will serve as a partial basis for his study of the moss flora of the southern Appalachians. 579421*— 61 3 24 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1860 In December, Dr. Herbert Friedmann, head curator of the depart- ment of zoology, attended the meetings of the American Associa- tion for the Advancement of Science, in Chicago. As chairman of Section F, he gave an address on "Current Changes in the Environ- ment of Zoological Research" at the zoologists' annual dinner. Dur- ing the meetings he visited colleagues in the Chicago Natural History Museum and discussed problems of mutual interest in connection with his current research. The detailed survey of the birdlife of the Isthmus of Panama under Dr. Alexander Wetmore, research associate and retired Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, continued early in January in the tract of land on the Rio Frijoles near Gamboa that, tlirough a coopera- tive arrangement with the Naval authorities in the Canal Zone, is now available as an adjunct to the reserve on Barro Colorado Island. Dr. Wetmore spent the last half of January investigatmg several localities in the Pearl Islands in the Gulf of Panama. Collections made on the islands of Contadora, Chapera, Saboga, Canas, Rey, Santelmo, Malaga, and Bayoneta yielded useful details of distribution. The remainder of the season from early February to the end of March he devoted to studies near the Costa Rican boundary in west- ern Chiriqui. The main station, through the kindness of Pablo Brackney, was at the linca Palo Santo at 4,200 feet elevation, near the base of Cerro Picacho. From here collections were made through the plateau section at Tisingal, around the lakes and elsewhere, and in the mountains to an elevation of 7,500 feet on Volcan Barii. A brief visit to the Boquete area on the opposite side of the volcano added to the collections several species of birds not found previously. During the first part of March the work was concentrated on the lowland region below Concepcion, where, through the friendly atten- tion of Felix Espinosa, the party located on a finca at 2,200 feet ele- vation. Tracts of forest were accessible in the upper valley of the Rio Escarrea. The main investigations were made lower down below Alanje, travel being by jeep over the sandy trails of the coastal plain. The work here extended across savanna country with oc- casional tracts of forest down to the seashore at Playa Barqueta and Ensenada Rica. At the end of March, with the season's work com- pleted, the party returned to the Canal Zone. With the cooperation of the Mexican Goverimient, the Smith- sonian-Bredin Expedition for 1960 undertook to collect for study and to report on specimens of the marine fauna and flora (algae) occurring along the coast of Yucatan from Progreso east and south to Espiritu Santo Bay, Quintana Roo. Five zoologists comprised the scientific staff: Dr. Waldo L. Schmitt, research associate, Dr. J. F. Gates Clarke, curator of insects, and Dr. Ha raid A. Rehder, curator of mollusks, all of the Smithsonian Institution ; Dr. Franklin C. Daiber, SECRETARY'S REPORT 25 Department of Biological Sciences, University of Delaware, ichthy- ologist and ecologist, whose chief interest was in making an ecological study of a mangrove swamp and its associated fish population; and Dr. Edward L. Bousfield, curator of invertebrate zoology. National Museum of Canada, a carcinologist specializing on barnacles and ampliipod crustaceans. The expedition sailed on March 20 from Miami with Drs. Rehder and Schmitt and the expedition's collecting outfit, arriving in Progreso, Yucatan, a iew days later. There Drs. Clarke, Daiber, and Bousfield joined the expedition, which departed on March 26 for Isla ]\Iujeres, where they spent a few days gathering shallow-water animal life and algae. From here the party went to San Miguel, Isla Cozumel, for the first three days of April. At this locality they made collections on the coast and also along shore by diving and with the electric light and dipnet over the ship's side at night. They spent the next few days reconnoitering Espiritu Santo and Ascension Bays and collected at the northern end of Cozumel from shore out to a depth of two fathoms, by diving, and also at Punta Molas, near the lighthouse, and in the shallow brackish lagoon at the northern end of Cozumel. The period April 10 to 19 was devoted primarily to Dr. Daiber's ecological study of portions of the great mangrove swamp in Ascen- sion Bay. Concomitantly extensive invertebrate and entomological collections were made on land and along shore in the vicinity of the lighthouse, in the swampy areas, on the far shore of the Bay, and at the northern end of the reef where it joins the mainland. The shoal waters of the south end of Cozumel Island, particularly about Punta Santa Maria, also were explored. Members of the party flew to Merida on April 24 to meet J. Bruce Bredin, sponsor of the expedition, and Ernest N. May, both of Wil- mington, Del. Although Drs. Clarke and Bousfield had to leave the expedition at this point, the rest spent April 25 to 27 visiting the Maya ruins at Chichen Itza, and on April 28 those at Uxmal, return- ing to Cozumel on April 30. They then departed for Georgetown, Grand Cayman, and after a limited period of collecting on this island, returned to Miami on May 7. In the course of the six weeks' expedition 119 collecting stations were established, mostly in the marine littoral, and 15 plankton sam- ples were made with tow and dipnet, the latter with the aid of a submerged electric light over the ship's side. Dr. Clarke at 20 dif- ferent places collected insects, along with other terrestrial arthropods, and, on Cozumel, a num.ber of bats. The number of marine inverte- brates obtained may total 10,000. Many of these are small, some of even microscopic size. Over 500 specimens of fishes were caught, and in excess of 6,000 insects and terrestrial arthropods were preserved. 26 ANNTJAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1960 Scientifically, the present expedition may be counted as one of the more productive of the recent expeditions under the sponsorsliip of Mr. and Mrs. Bredin. The collections of the Smithsonian Institution have been greatly enhanced by this important collaboration. Dr. David H. Johnson, curator of mammals, visited the California Academy of Sciences in San Francisco, June 13-14, to obtain data for the proposed dugong group in the new Hall of Oceanic Life of the Museum of Natural History. He also studied the collections of mammals in the Academy, finding significant specimens from Annam, Korea, and Manchuria bearing upon his research projects. Subse- quently, Dr. Johnson attended the annual meeting of the American Society of Mammalogists in Tacoma, Wash., where he had an oppor- tunity to review with colleagues the manuscript report on mammals collected on Ponape in connection with a project of the Pacific Science Board. Dr. Henry W. Setzer, associate curator of mammals, spent the first few days of December at the American Museum of Natural History, where he familarized himself with some of the collections of the de- partment of mammals. His particular interest was to make a survey and a study of African mammals, particularly those belonging to the genus Acomys. Dr. Charles O. Handley, Jr., associate curator of mammals, made a brief trip to Fenwick Island, Del., to obtain for the National Museum a skull of a young male beaked whale, Ziphius cavirostris, a species rarely collected. Later in September he spent five days in Virginia near the mouth of the Rappahannock River, in order to augment the collection he made in this mammalogically little known area in May 1959. He collected approximately 70 mammals, many of which are significant in working out the relationships of the mammalian fauna of this isolated area, and some of which are rare in Coastal Plains collections. During the first week of December Dr. Handley made a very productive study trip to the Academy of Natural Sciences at Phila- delphia, the Museum of Comparative Zoology of Harvard Univer- sity, and the American Museum of Natural History in New York, his objective being to compare recently acquired Panamanian speci- mens with types and other specimens in the respective museums. He was able to develop a large body of valuable notes, and it was dis- covered, surprisingly, that several of the species represented in the Panamanian collections are apparently undescribed. Between January 12 and March 15, Dr. Handley, accompanied by D. I. Rhymer, of the taxidermy shop, continued his survey of the mammals of Panama, which is now in its fourth year. This work is being conducted in cooperation with the Gorgas Memorial SECRETARY'S REPORT 27 Laboratory. Collecting in Panama this year was entirely in the province of Bocas del Toro, on the Caribbean coast adjacent to Costa Eica, a region of heavy rainfall witliout a distinct dry season. Collections were made in the great swamps around Almirante and Boca del Drago and at a cattle ranch near Changuinola. One of the bats obtained is the third known specimen of a species last collected in 1896, while another had previously been known only from southern Mexico and southeastern Brazil. Several of the mar- supials and rodents appear to be undescribed subspecies, and at least two of the birds were second records for Panama. From mid-March to mid- April Dr. Handley and Mr. Rhymer worked in Venezuela in cooperation with the Ministry of Agricul- ture of that country, with headquarters in the National Park of Rancho Grande in the coast range about 50 miles west of Caracas. They sampled the desert fauna along the Caribbean coast, the cloud forest on the mountaintops, and the arid savannas around Lake Valencia in the interior. Most of the species obtained in Venezuela have been poorly represented in the U.S. National Museum. Several of the bats and one of the mice have not previously been reported in Venezuela; one of the bats, although common locally, is the second known collection of the species, recently described from Panama. During the course of their work in Panama and Venezuela in 1960 Dr. Handley and his assistant collected and preserved more than 2,500 specimens of mammals, birds, reptiles, and amphibians, in addition to a number of invertebrates and a few fishes. This significant ma- terial includes several species new to the collections of the National Museum and many others representing extensions of known geo- graphical ranges. In his capacity as secretary of the American Ornithologists' Union, Herbert G. Deignan, associate curator of birds, attended the annual meeting at Regina, Saskatchewan, toward the end of August. Dr. Leonard P. Schultz, curator of fishes, made a trip to Miami, Fla., and Bimini, Bahamas, July 6-11, for the purpose of locating molds and casts of large fishes for the proposed Plall of Oceanic Life. On October 30 he attended the dedication services for the new building of the Bingham Oceanographic Laboratory at Yale University and while there made extensive notes on fish specimens available for study, with special attention to sharks and various reef -fishes. Between August 26 and September 5, Dr. William R. Taylor, associate curator of fishes, and Robert H. Kanazawa, museum aide, collected fishes m the Tennessee River and adjoining river systems in Virginia, Tennessee, Georgia, and Alabama, a particular desidera- tum being specimens of fishes of the genus Notui^s needed for a re- vision by Dr. Taylor which is nearing completion. Important ecologi- 28 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 19 60 cal and locality data also were obtained. Continuing their studies, the two made a similar collecting trip to the Neuse and Tar River sys- tems of North Carolina, September 16-20. The species under particu- lar consideration there was Notwus furiosus, of wliich nearly 100 speci- mens were obtained from tliree localities in the Tar Eiver system, thus increasing the number of known specunens many times and adequately meeting the needs of the study in progress. These two expeditions resulted in the addition of about 8,500 specimens of fishes to the collections of the U.S. National Museum. O. L. Cartwright, associate curator of insects, in December made a research trip to the Academy of Natural Sciences at Philadelphia comparing specimens and examining holotypes of four species of Ontho2)kaguSy a group of scarab beetles he is revising. Dr. Ralph E. Crabill, Jr., associate curator of insects, continued his work on chilopods by studies at the Museum of Comparative Zoology, at Harvard University, July 20-25. He studied specimens housed in the collection, attempted to collect topo types of an obscure species described from that area, and conferred with colleagues con- cerning biological and curatorial problems. With the aid of a Na- tional Science Foimdation grant Dr. Crabill left Washington on March 28 for an extended study of centipedes and millipedes in European museums. He was accompanied by Dr. Richard L. Hoff- man, research assistant, who is a specialist on millipedes. Between September 26 and October 4, Charles E. Cutress, Jr., as- sociate curator of marine invertebrates, traveled to Buxton and Beau- fort, N.C., to examine collections of sea anemones at the Cape Hatteras and Duke Marine Laboratories and to collect and photogi-aph sea anemones in both areas. Specimens and notes obtained made it pos- sible to settle problems concerning the anemones of the area. In continuation of studies on the Pacific marine fauna undertaken under a contract with the Atomic Energy Commission and the Office of Naval Research, Dr. Harald A. Rehder, curator of mollusks, studied collections in Cambridge, Mass. In studying the Pacific molluslcs he is being assisted by Dr. Joseph Rosewater, research assistant. Studies were made in the Museum of Comparative Zoology; in particular, specimens of the Tellinidae from the Indo-Pacific area were criti- cally examined and recorded in order to facilitate the preparation of a monograph on the members of this large family. Dr. Rehder also visited Salem, Mass., to confer with Dr. Donald Marshall, an ethnolo- gist of the Peabody Museum, who during the course of his fieldwork has made extensive collections of mollusks in the Tuamotus that are of considerable interest to Dr. Rehder in connection with his Pacific studies. Dr. Rosewater examined approximately 270 lots of specimens of the molluscan family Pinnidae at the Museum of Comparative SECRETARY'S REPORT 29 Zoology and at the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia in furtherance of a monograph on the Indo-Pacific species of this family. In mid-February Dr. Joseph P. E. Morrison, associate curator of mollusks, acted as one of the judges of the annual show of the St. Petersburg, Fla., Shell Club. The Smithsonian Institution offers an annual citation for the best exhibit in this display. Subsequently, he carried on some dredging operations in the upper end of Old Tampa Bay, and at Long Bayou he found living Polymesoda clams in the black muck under grass in the intertidal zone, where the local shell collectors had previously seen only dead shells. The month prior to June 15 Dr. Morrison, accompanied by James Watson of the exhibits staff, spent at two southeastern localities photographing, sketching, and collecting specimens and materials for shore-line habitat groups for exhibit in the proposed Hall of Oceanic Life. Included were more than two weeks at the Gulf Coast Research Laboratory at Ocean Springs, Miss. On the return trip they visited the University of North Carolina Institute of Fisheries Research, at Morehead City, N. C, and gathered materials and specimens for the sand-beach shore-line group. The superb cooperation of the per- sonnel concerned at both of these laboratories made possible the virtual completion of this complicated work in considerably shorter time than was originally planned and the gathering of additional scientif- ic specimens of mollusks and other animals at various other localities. For example, previously unknown Qgg characters and new locality records of fresh-water mollusks were obtained from Virginia, Ten- nessee, and Georgia on the way south. Several species and genera were added to the known molluscan fauna of Mississippi, and topotype specimens of the brackish-water snail genus Littoridinops were ob- tained from near Darien, Ga. From July 6 to August 7, 1969, Dr. G. A. Cooper, head curator of the department of geology, and Dr. Richard E. Grant, research assist- ant, conducted fieldwork in w^est Texas in furtherance of their studies of fossil brachiopods, a long-term project that is partially supported by a grant from the National Science Foundation. They made extended stays in the Glass Mountains, the Chinati ISfountains, the Sierra Diablo, and the Carlsbad Caverns area. The expedition was a success in every way, and many fine blocks containing important fossil brachiopods were obtained that will yield much new information and permit the correction of possible errors in earlier records. In mid-June Dr. Cooper visited the American Museum of Natural History to study a large and valuable collection of fossil corals, some of which are being offered to the National Museum. 30 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 19 60 Between August 17 and September 10 Dr. George S. Switzer, curator of mineralogy and petrology, visited several institutions in Europe to examine their mineral collections and discuss future exchanges with staff members. Subsequently, he attended the first general as- sembly of the International Mineralogical Association in Zurich, where he represented the Mineralogical Society of America, and a meeting of the Museums Commission of the International Mineralog- ical Association. This highly successful international session was followed by a 4-day field excursion to classic mineral localities in the Swiss Alps. During the week following March 4 Dr. Switzer visited Dr. Mark C. Bandy, of Phoenix, Ariz., to examine a collection of several thousand mineral specimens comprising an exceptionally val- uable study set of South American minerals, especially from the tin mines at Llallague, Bolivia. In September E. P. Henderson, associate curator of mineralogy and petrology, accompanied by Grover C. Morel and, physical science aide, visited the Battelle Memorial Institute in Columbus, Ohio, to study the techniques developed there for polishing metals, ores, and meteorites. Mr. Henderson also examined specimens of the New Concord meteorite in the Ohio State University Museum and some of the Hopewell material in the ISIuseum of Archeology. In connec- tion with the annual meetings of the Geological Society of America in Pittsburgh, November 1-12, he visited the Mellon Institute and discussed exchanges of meteorites and tektites with staff members. Subsequently, he discussed problems pertaining to meteorites with staff members of the Chicago Natural History Museum and the Uni- versity of Chicago, Long interested in the study of tektites, IMr. Henderson has been attempting for some years to acquire a representative collection of these interesting extraterrestrial objects for the Smithsonian Insti- tution. One of the principal collectors has been Dr. II, Otley Beyers, of Manila, who has perhaps the largest privately owned tektite col- lection in the world. Aided by a grant from the National Science Fonndation, Mr. Henderson left Washington late in .January to select from this collection, with Mr. Beyers's cooperation, representative material for the Smith.sonian, He spent nearly two months in Manila at this task, and as a result approximately 10,000 specimens will come to the Institution as a donation by Dr. Beyers. These very valuable specimens will greatly augment the material available in the United States for study by specialists. After completion of his work in the Philippines, Mr. Plenderson visited 15 institutions in Viet Nam, Thailand, Burma, India, Russia, Austria, Switzerland, Germany, France, and England, becoming acquainted with specialists on mete- orites and tektites and making preliminary arrangements concerning SECRETARY'S REPORT 31 exchanges between the Smithsonian Institution and these various other museums. In mid-November Paul E. Desautels, associate curator of mineralogy and petrology, visited Rochester, N.Y., to select specimen materials for the national collections. At the request of the Rochester Academy of Sciences he gave a talk at the Rochester Museum of Arts and Sciences entitled "Crystal Growth and Its Aberrations in Mineral Crystals." In June he went to the southern Illinois-Kentucky fluorspar mining district, in the hope that certain dehciences in the museum collections could be eliminated. The trip proved very successful, resulting in the acquisition of about 1,000 pounds of top-quality mineral specimens of fluorite, calcite, barite, galena, and quartz. On June 1 Dr. Richard S. Boardman, associate curator of inverte- brate paleontology and paleobotany, left for an extended visit to Europe to facilitate his studies of fossil Bryozoa of the United States and their correlation with European famias. This research is partially supported by a grant from the National Science Foundation. Dr. Boardman's objectives are to collect Ordovician fossils, mainly Bryozoa, and to visit musemns and universities in Great Britain, France, Belgium, Germany, and other continental countries. Dr. Porter M. Kier, associate curator of invertebrate paleontology and paleobotany, spent the period October 11-16 collecting fossil echinoids on the Chattahoochee River and its tributaries in Georgia, accompanied by Dr. Norman Solil, of the U.S. Geological Survey. The geologists visited all the known echinoid localities in the area and acquired many excellent specimens for the collections of the National Museum. In November and in March Dr. Kier visited the Academy of Natural Sciences in Philadelphia and the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard University to study the fossil and recent echinoid collections of those institutions. Many specimens were seen, and some were borrowed in aid of his work on the Cassi- duloida, an order of sea-urchins. On Jujie 6 he departed for a brief European trip, during which he intends to examine collections of fossil echinoids in the museums at Paris and Liege. This study, which is part of a project supported by the National Science Foundation, is to aid in the preparation of a monograph on the Cassiduloida. Dr. Richard Cifelli, associate curator of invertebrate paleontology and paleobotany, joined a group of biologists from the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution in marine studies from August 5 to 19. After preliminary work at Woods Hole, Mass., the group went to Ber- muda, whence, aboard the oceanographic vessel R. V. Chain^ they sailed on a more or less direct line to Woods Hole, stopping at 15 sta- tions along the way. Tliey made hydrographic observations and took 32 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1960 200-raeter oblique plankton tows at each station. Also at each of the stations they took a separate tow for pelagic Foraminifera, using a specially designed i/^-meter net with a guard at the forward end. This is a particularly interesting traverse because it crosses diverse water masses, including the Sargasso Sea, the Gulf Stream, the North Atlantic Slope Waters, and the Eastern North Atlantic Coastal Waters. Each water mass appears to be characterized by a distinctive assemblage of Foraminifera. From this and further scheduled trips Dr. Cifelli expects to gather more data on the distribution of North Atlantic pelagic Foraminifera and on factors responsible for their distribution. During the first half of June Dr. Cifelli, accompanied by several members of the U.S. Geological Survey and the Canadian Geological Survey, visited several western States to examine important marine Jurassic sections. The party studied the Jurassic stratigraphy at sites in Wyoming, Montana, and Idaho. Dr. Cifelli collected 130 foraminif eral samples from the shales in the Jurassic formation. Henry B. Roberts, museum aide, in mid-January visited the Acad- emy of Natural Sciences at Philadelpliia to study various primaiy types of fossil decapods and barnacles. The Academy's collections in these fields contain important historical material particularly use- ful to Mr. Roberts in his researches. Dr. C. Lewis Gazin, curator of vertebrate paleontology, accom- panied by Franklin L. Pearce, exhibits specialist, devoted about a month early in the year collecting fossil vertebrates in southwestern Wyoming and adjacent Utah. Dr. Gazin traced the Sage Creek White Layer, which marks the boundary between the upper and lower Bridger formation from the type section of Cottonwood Creek around the basin to its most easterly point on Twin Buttes. This study has considerable significance in properly correlating many of the collec- tions made from various localities in earlier years and correcting errors on a map prepared by Matthew and Granger about 50 years ago. Collecting was largely concentrated in the lower or Bridger "B" levels on both sides of the basin, but localities visited outside the areal extent of the Bridger formation included a lowermost Eocene fossil occurrence just south of Bitter Creek Station on the Union Pacific Railroad, a previously veiy productive locality for lower Eocene mammals, about 12 miles north of Big Piney, Wyo., and a series of nearly barren upper Eocene exposures in Norwood Canyon, Morgan County, Utah. After the completion of his fieldwork. Dr. Gazin studied fossil pri- mates at the Los Angeles County Museum. Later, September 10-12, in Salt Lake City, he participated in the annual field conference of the Intermountain Association of Petroleum Geologists. Between SECRETARY'S REPORT 33 December 6 and 13 he visited research collections at Princeton Uni- versity and the American Museum of Natural History to study Eocene creodonts, primates, and rodents. In both institutions he found many valuable specimens bearing upon his current studies, and paleontologi- cal problems were discussed in detail with various staff members. In mid-April Dr. Gazin began an extended tour of various European countries to carry on both museum research and field work. Begin- ning in France and Switzerland, he will continue this work in Ger- many, Austria, Demnark, Belgium, and England, the primary purpose of the project being to study early Tertiary mammalian collections and to visit the more important classical localities for early fossil mammals. It is part of a long-term research project on the early Tertiary mammals of North America, which is partially supported by a grant from the National Science Foundation. Late in May Dr. David H. Dunkle, associate curator of vertebrate paleontology, spent a week first at the Carnegie Museum in Pittsburgh studying examples of Mesozoic fishes from Europe, especially amioids and oligopleurids, and then at the Cleveland Museum of Natural History consulting staff members on the reconstruction of dinosaur skeletons in their new hall with a view to obtaining information of use in the renovation of halls in our Museum of Natural Histoi'y. Dr. Nicholas Hotton III, associate curator of vertebrate paleontol- ogy, spent the last week of October examining deposits of Dunkard (Permo-Carboniferous) age in Belmont County, Ohio, for vertebrate remains. The outcrops visited were those used by members of the U.S. Geological Survey in stratigraphic studies of Monongahela and Dunk- ard rocks of that county. He collected vertebrates from 15 localities from which material had not been previously obtained. Dunkard outcrops in western West Virginia and more northerly exposures of the Dunkard in Ohio and Pennsylvania were also studied. Subse- quently, Dr. Hotton spent some time at the Carnegie Museum, in Pittsburgh, examining collections of Dunkard material, and attending the annual meetings of the Society of Vertebrate Paleontology and the Geological Society of America. In connection with the planned renovation of the Dinosaur Hall in the Museum of Natural History, Dr. Hotton spent about 10 days in November visiting comparable presentations in the American Museum of Natural History, the Yale Peabody Museum in New Haven, the Cleveland Museum of Natural History, and the Cliicago Natural Histoiy Museum. The arrange- ment of dinosaur skeletons and certain lighting effects achieved at tliese institutions provided him with useful background information for planning the Smithsonian's new exhibits. During the last week of March Dr. Hotton worked at the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard University, examining and making sketches of specimens of 34 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1960 primitive members of the reptilian order Captorhinomorpha, in con- nection with his research on the nature and origin of the reptilian middle ear. The skulls inspected display important morphological detail which has not yet been recorded. For a month and a half just before the end of the fiscal year, Dr. Hotton, accompanied by John D. Gassaway, museum aide, collected in the Permian areas of Kansas, Oklahoma, and Texas. They ex- plored outcrops of the Speiser formation for vertebrate fossils from Eiley County to Cowley County, Kans., and obtained a good collection of little-known amphibians, including the greater part of an excel- lently preserved articulated skeleton of Acroplous. Most of the well- known localities in Texas appear to have been overcollected, but nevertheless some interesting blocks containing bones of many small animals were obtained in new localities or less promising areas around the better-known ones. A marked difference between the Kansas and Texas deposits was noted, although they are rouglily of the same age. Exhibits Specialist Franklin L. Pearce spent ten days in June at the Cleveland Museum of Natural Plistory, the University of Michigan Museums, and the Chicago Natural History Museum, primarily to observe their methods of preparation of fossils and the use of new plastic and metallic materials in the field of vertebrate paleontology. Some of the new techniques utilized in these museums hold promise for use in the restoration procedures already in progress at the Smithsonian. The Director of the Museum of Histoiy and Technology, Frank A. Taylor, spent two days in New York in July at the American Museum of Natural History and the Metropolitan Museum of Art investigating details of exhibition techniques. He examined repro- ductions of early European mechanical calculators and met the crafts- men who are building the model of the da Vinci coining press for the Smithsonian. Dr. Robert P. Multhauf, head curator of science and technology, made trips during the year to several of the eastern States, visiting museums, other institutions, and individuals to examine scientific apparatus and antique instruments of possible interest to the Smith- sonian study and exhibits programs. In order to accelerate the enlargement of exhibit and study mate- rials of the division of mechanical and civil engineering, Eugene S. Ferguson, curator, visited a number of institutions and individuals throughout the eastern United States. Especially at Winterthur, Del., Philadelphia, and various localities in New England, he ac- quired information about specific machines and tools of potential use in planning various new Smithsonian exhibits. In June he attended SECRETARY'S REPORT 35 the 68th annual meeting of the American Society for Engineering Education at Purdue University and presented a paper on "Kine- matics of Mechanisms from tlie Time of Watt." In connection with planned halls in the new Museum of History and Teclinology, Edwin A. Battison, associate curator of mechanical and civil engineering, visited various watch factories, collections, and individuals throughout the northeastern States. He examined many chronometers and watches as well as certain historical instru- ments with a view to acquiring material and information for the Institution. During the year Eobeii;. M. Vogel, assistant curator of mechanical and civil engineering, made several trips throughout the north- eastern States in connection with the exhibits in the new Smithsonian Hall of Engineering. He examined a large quantity of mechanical equipment including elevators, engines, railroads and other means of transportation and made many contacts with interested individuals and developed plans for the acquisition of desired specimens for the new hall. In the continuing development of a program for the construction of models for the new Museum of History and Technology, Howard I. Chapelle, curator of transportation, spent May 16-24 visiting indi- viduals and model manufacturers throughout the northeastern States. Included were such public organizations as the Museum of the City of New York and the New Bedford \^^laling Museum, where he in- spected builders' models of ships. Jolm H. White, Jr., assistant curator of transportation, made trips to several eastern States where he visited institutions, libraries, and individuals to examine historic locomotives and models and other railroad equipment, as well as catalogs and documents. During the year W. James King, Jr., acting curator of electricity, visited various museums and libraries throughout the eastern States, primarily in connection with Smithsonian study collections and the proposed new Hall of Electricity. He studied collections in telephone communications, the various aspects of telegraphy and electronic equipment, and the history of electrical technology and engineering. Dr. John B. Blake, curator of medical sciences, made several short trips to examine historic medical instruments and X-ray apparatus with a view to enlarging and improving the Smithsonian collections in this field. Between March 30 and May 15, he visited numerous museums, universities, and other institutions in Great Britain, Hol- land, France, Switzerland, Italy, Germany, Denmark, and Sweden, principally those containing objects pertaining to medical history. The historical medical museums in London, especially the Wellcome Historical Medical Museum, and in Zurich, Kome, Copenhagen, and 36 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1960 Stockholm were particularly outstanding. He also furthered his research in dental history in the study collections of these museums. Early in December Dr. Sami K. Hamarneh, associate curator of medical sciences, visited the Firestone Library at Princeton Univer- sity, the College of Pharmacy and Science in Philadelphia, and the chemistry department of the University of Pennsylvania to study Arabic manuscripts pertaining to health arts, to consult oriental published works contamed in these various libraries, and to examine pharmaceutical antiques housed there. Dr. Philip W. Bishop, head curator of arts and manufactures, spent two days in West Virginia in November inspecting certain early oil-pumping equipment. He made a number of contacts with oil- and gas-well owners which may lead to further acquisitions for the exhibits of the Museum of History and Technology. In November Miss Grace L. Rogers, acting curator of textiles, spent three days in New York City visiting various textile estab- lishments. She also visited the Fabien Printing Co. in Lodi, N.J., where with expert guidance she examined in detail the various steps in both the screen-printing and roller-printing processes. In May she attended the first International Textile Machinery Exhibition sponsored by the American Textile Machinery Association, at At- lantic City, N.J., where exhibits from 11 foreign countries and the United States were on display that incorporated new ideas in tex- tile macliinery. Several trips to museums and other institutions and individuals were made during the year by Paul V. Gardner, acting curator of ce- ramics and glass, for the purpose of acquiring materials for Smithso- nian exhibits. These included visits to the Corning Museum of Glass, the Syracuse Museum of Fine Arts, the New Haven Colony Histor- ical Society, and the New Historical Society. Jacob Kainen, curator of graphic arts, spent five days in Septem- ber in Minneapolis checking data on John Baptist Jackson and Hen- drick Goltzius, ftarticularly at the Minneapolis Public Library, the Minneapolis Art Institute, and the Walker Art Institute. In De- cember he visited various museums and libraries in Richmond, Va., and Raleigh, N.C., in pursuance of the same research projects per- taining to these artists. In April, Fuller O. Griffith, 3d, assistant curator of gi-aphic arts, studied a collection of Hassam lithographs in the Detroit Institute of Arts. He found several unique examples of Hassam's work that were of great interest and value in furthering his research on this artist Charles O. Houston, Jr., associate curator of industrial coopera- tion, made two trips to Pittsburgh during the year to visit the SECRETARY'S REPORT 37 Bureau of Mines, the Carnegie Library and Museum, and other institutions to study references on mine technology and coal- cutting machinery. An examination of operations connected with the preparation and shipment of various kinds of coal at the Mathies Mine on the Monongahela River was useful to Mr. Houston in his preparation of plans for the new Smithsonian Hall of Coal. At a meeting of the Agricultural History Society at Louisville, Ky., E. C. Kendall, associate curator of agriculture and wood products, discussed the acquisition of various farm implements to supplement such collections in the Museum of History and Technology and gave a paper on 18th-century American plows and their European origins. Dr. Anthony N. B. Garvan, head curator of civil history, made several trips in connection with the preparation of a new hall, The Growth of the United States. Among the institutions visited, and from which valuable information and suggestions were obtained, were the Hispanic Society of America in New York, the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, and the Ford Museum in Dearborn, Mich. In May Dr. Garvan attended a meeting of the Board of the Human Relations Area File in New Haven. The Smithsonian Insti- tution has recently acquired a set of these valuable files and has been elected to membership. This research material will be of value to members of the Smithsonian staff and to other scientists in the Washington area. Dr. Wilcomb E. Washburn, curator of political history, \'isited several eastern museums and other institutions in continuance of his studies of political Americana and to review exhibit techniques in use elsewhere. At several historical houses he examined collections referring to American historical figures, including William Henry Harrison, Henry Clay, Abraham Lincoln, William Seward, and Franklin D. Roosevelt. During several trips to various parts of the eastern States, C. Malcolm Watkins, acting curator of cultural history, examined many collections in connection with the proposed halls of the Museum of History and Technology. In the Virginia State Library, in Rich- mond, and in the Archives of Colonial Williamsburg, he continued his research on the Marlborough site. John D. Shortridge, associate curator of cultural history, attended the sessions of the American Musicological Society in Chicago late in December. He visited the Chicago Art Institute and the Newberry Library, to examine harpsichords and other musical instruments of historical interest. Rodris C. Roth, associate curator of cultural history, went to New York and New England in November to study period rooms and decorative arts collections in various museums and galleries. Her 38 ANKUAh REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1960 research involves studies in visual materials, such as painting and prints related to American and English interior decoration of domes- tic dwellings in the I7th, 18tli, and 19th centuries. Her studies outside of Washington have enabled her to advance projects on furnishings and exhibits for a Smithsonian hall of Every Day Life in the Ameri- can Past. John N. Pearce, assistant curator of cultural history, visited Wil- mington, Del., and New York City in April and ^lay to carry out research on the Meeks family, cabinetmakers in New York in the 18th and 19 th centuries. George T. Turner, acting curator of philately and postal history, accompanied by Francis J. McCall, associate curator, attended the 11th annual American Stamp Dealers' Show in New York, November 18-22. A 12-frame display prepared by the division of philately and postal history was exhibited and aroused much interest. Mr. IVIcCall, while in Boston in September, continued research on the establish- ment of a post office in the Colony of New England ; he also examined Hawaiian missionary correspondence of the period 1820-50 in the Houghton Library of Harvard University, in connection with his research on this subject. In preparation for new exhibits for the Museum of History and Technology, Dr. Vladimir Clain-Stefanelli, acting curator of numis- matics, journeyed to New York, Omaha, and Chicago to discuss nu- mismatic problems with various specialists and to examine laboratory and exhibit techniques being used by different institutions. Mrs. Elvira Clain-Stefanelli, associate curator of numismatics, has carried on her bibliographical research on Greek metrology. Mendel L. Peterson, head curator of Armed Forces history, spent the first half of July in Havana, Cuba, and Port Koyal, Jamaica. In Havana he examined several Spanish bronze cannons in Cabana For- tress in connection with his study of the marking and decoration of early artillery. In Jamaica he joined the underwater explorations operating from the Sea Diver II. United States Navy divers had been working there for some weeks, devoting most of their time to removing silt and coral overburden from the site. The material re- covered led to a probable conclusion that this might have been the site of a cooldiouse of the typo known to have been used in Port Royal. On a subsequent trip to Jamaica, between July 27 and August 11, Mr. Peterson rejoined the expedition, which by that time had begun to recover a large number of objects from the site behind Fort James. It is believed that Port Royal is the richest 17th-century site in the Western Hemisphere. Several years of hard digging will be required to exploit it completely. The research sponsored by Edwin A. Link and the National Geographic Society in this particular area, in which SECRETARY'S REPORT 39 Mr. Peterson has participated, is certain to cast valuable liglit on the Colonial period of Jamaica. Edgar M. Howell, acting curator of military history, visited Sack- ets Harbor, N.Y., September 13-18, to explore the site of two War of 1812 forts. The excavations produced results far exceeding ex- pectations. Mr. Howell continued the preparation of an article on the career of Harvey Dunn, official combat artist of World War I, and a catalog of his war paintings. Early in December he visited New York and vicinity to interview members of the Dunn family and several of the artist's contemporaries. Philip K. Lundeberg, associate curator of naval history, made a tour of maritime and naval museums on the northeast coast of the United States, September 21-October 4, and obtained much informa- tion that will be of use in preparing the new exhibits in the Museum of History and Technology of the Smithsonian. EXHIBITIONS Modernization of several exhibition halls was continued in 1960. Two completely renovated halls illustrating "The World of Mammals" were opened to the public on November 23, 1959. Biological princi- ples, such as how mammals vary geographically, how they adapt to different climates and environment, the various structural adapta- tions for locomotion, how they obtain their food and defend themselves, are illustrated. Selected groupings of kinds of mammals, such as cats, dogs, bears, pigs, and primates, are displayed separately. Habitat groups show, among others, African buffalo, square-lipped rhinoceroses, lions, zebras, armadillos, proboscis monkeys, and orang- utans in natural surroundings. ISIany of the large African mammals in these halls were collected by President Theodore Eoosevelt during his African expedition of 1909-10, sponsored by the Smithsonian In- stitution. These exhibits were planned by Dr. Henry W. Setzer, asso- ciate curator of mammals. Architectural design was by Thomas Baker, who also supervised the preparation and installation of the exhibits. Robert C. Hogue painted the backgrounds of the habitat groups, and Watson Perrygo supervised the taxidermy work and preparation of accessories. The mural was painted by Art Smith. Planning for "Oceanic Life," which will occupy the large west main hall, advanced during the year, and progress was made on the construction of a replica of a 92-foot blue whale, which will represent the largest living form of animal life. Chris Karras designed the layout of this hall. The contract for the construction of the dis- play fixtures was awarded in June 1960. On June 30, 1960, the first comprehensive review of fossil fishes and amphibians in the U.S. National Museum of the Smithsonian Institu- 579421 •— 61 i 40 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1960 tion was presented to the public. The history and development of these geologically old back-boned animals are traced through mil- lions of years. Transition from life in the water to life on land and the development of jaws are illustrated by diagrams and models. A 14-foot skeleton of the predatory Cretaceous fish Xiphactinus, which had swallowed another sizable fish, the dermal-armored giant Devonian joint-necked fish Dinichthys, a series of fishes which had inhabited the seas covering Germany during the Jurassic period, and a rock slab with the crowded skulls and bones of the amphibian Buettneria which had been trapped in an evaporating Triassic swamp within the boundaries of the present state of New Mexico are displayed in this hall. This exhibit hall was supervised by Dr. David H. Dunkle, associate curator of vertebrate palentology, and the exhibits design was coordinated by Gorman Bond. The most colorful habitat groups for the hall of invertebrate paleontology and paleobotany were completed by George Marchand of Ann Arbor, Mich. A giant cephalopod shell, Parapuzosia, which was received in many pieces, was restored for a display unit. Scripts for the paleobotanical displays in this hall were prepared by Dr. Erling Dorf of Princeton University. Dr. Gustav A. Cooper, head curator of geology, was responsible for the preparation of the scripts for the remainder of this hall. Construction of the display units in the hall for the fossil mammals illustrating the "Age of Mammals" was completed and installation commenced. The large fossil mammal skeletons were in place by the end of the year. This hall was designed by Ann Karras in accordance with the script furnished by Dr. C. Lewis Gazin, curator of vertebrate paleontology. Included among the mammals added to the previous exhibit series are skeletons of two horses, Orohippus and Parahippus, the Oligocene camel Poehrotherium, a composite restoration of the Eocene primate Smilodecfes, and a large primitive rodent, Ischyrotomos. Preparation of specimens for the dinosaur display in the large east main hall was begun near the end of the year. Among these were the skeleton of the Triassic reptile Trilophosaunis, remounting the skeleton of the Permian sail lizard Dimetrodon and restoring the elongated tail, and restoration of a phytosaur skull from the Triassic rocks of west Texas. Tentative layouts for modernization of the dino- saur hall were developed by Dr. Nicholas Hotton III, associate cura- tor, and exhibits designer Aim Karras. Preparation of exhibits for the first of two modernized halls of North American archeology was initiated and 17 cases were installed. Among these were topical exhibits on aboriginal North American uses SECRETARY'S REPORT 41 of tobacco, agriculture and food crops, methods of shaping stone, and historic metal trade goods, as well as interpretations of prehistoric Indian cultures of iUaska, California, and the southwestern United States. The exhibits were designed by Terrell Bridges. Contract construction in the second of two halls of North Amerian archeology was completed in June 19G0. Dr. Waldo R. Wedel, curator of arche- ology, is responsible for the scientific planning of all exhibits in both of these halls. Curator of ethnology Saul H. Riesenberg and Associate Curator Eugene I. Knez cooperated with Dorothy Guthrie of the exhibits staff in the development of the architectural layout for the "People of the Pacific" exhibit, which will interpret the material culture of Oceania and southeast Asia. Associate Curators Knez and Gordon D. Gibson also consulted with Mrs. Guthrie in developing a tentative layout of exhibits in an adjoining hall which will be devoted to Afri- can and eastern and central Asiatic peoples. Script for the hall of physics, astronomy, and mathematics was completed by Dr. Robert P. Multhauf, head curator of science and technology, with the assistance of Consultants Peter Diamadopoulos and Julian H. Bigelow. The unit designs were developed by Ben- jamin W. Lawless. In August 1959 one of the exhibits for this hall, a full-scale replica of the shop and tools of Henry Fitz, this country's first commercial telescope-maker, was installed in the Arts and In- dustries Building. Special exhibitions presented by the division of physical sciences during the past year were the first cash register, a gift of the National Cash Register Co., the development of the py- rometer (commemorating the inventions of Edward Brown), a loan display of machinery used in compiling the United States census, an exhibit of American surveying instruments, and a series of astrolabes received from the International Business Machines Corporation. Curator Eugene S. Ferguson supervised the trial erection of a pre- Civil War machine shop and the restoration of machine tools which will be shown in this shop in the Museum of History and Technology. Associate Curator Edwin A. Battison supervised the erection of a clockmaker's shop which will be a featured exhibit in the hall of light machinery. Curator Ploward I. Chapelle, with the assistance of William Geo- ghegan, drafted drawings and specifications for the construction of 18 models of historic ship types not represented in the Museum's collections, and continued to supervise the repair and restoration of models in the watercraft collection. The major portion of the hall of electricity script has been com- pleted by Acting Curator W. James King, Jr., aided by consultants 42 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSOIOAN INSTITUTION, 19 60 Eobert A. Chipman and Guenter Schwarz. A diorama depicting the broadcast of a program from the studio of pioneer radio station KDKA in Pittsburgh was also completed during the year. Throughout the year attention was devoted to the development of exhibits of medical and pharmaceutical history which were designed by Ronald Elbert and Fred Craig from specifications furnished by Dr. John Blake and Dr. Sami Hamarneh, curator and associate cura- tor, respectively, of medical sciences. On February 18, 1960, the new farm machinery hall in the south- east court of the Arts and Industries Building was formally opened. The exhibits illustrate the progressive mechanization of farm work since the early part of the 19th century. Actual machines supple- mented by accurate models record the development of these labor- saving devices. Associate Curator Edward C. Kendall was responsi- ble for the planning of this hall and the exhibits were designed by Ronald Elbert. On December 9, 1959, the section of the textile hall gallery, tracing the history of the development of the sewing machine, was opened to the public. Seven cases show the first United States patents, the development of a practical machine, commercial treadle and hand machines of the 1850's to 1870's, unusual sewing-machine patents of the period, and early sewing-machine attachments for special pur- poses. A section of this gallery was opened on May 17, 1960, for the display of printing and dyeing teclmiques from the early painted- cotton fabrics of India tlirough the tie-dyeing, batik, block printing, copperplate printing, roller printing, stenciling, and silk-screen printing. Theodore A. Randall, professor of ceramics of the New York State University, served as consultant to Acting Curator Paul V. Gardner in planning the hall of ceramics and glass. The Seventh Interna- tional Exhibition of Ceramic Art was held from August 21 to Sep- tember 23, 1959, in the foyer of the Natural History building. For- eign ceramics selected and lent by the embassies of the 19 countries represented supplemented ceramics made by i\jnerican artists of na- tional or international reputation, and pieces exhibited by local artists. In May 1960 production was completed on the panel exhibits for the second of two large sections of the hall of graphic arts illustrating the history and development of photochemical printing. These ex- hibits, designed by Harry Hart from scripts written by Assistant Curator Fuller O. Griffith, 3d, will be stored until the Museum of History and Technology building is completed. Installation of exhibits in the petroleum hall of the Arts and In- dustries Building was nearing completion at the end of the year. SECRETARY'S REPORT 43 Scripts for this hall were prepared by Dr. Pliilip W. Bishop, head curator of arts and manufactures. Associate Curator Charles O. Houston assumed responsibility for the hall of coal. John D. Mor- row, formerly president of the Pittsburgh Coal Co. and the Joy Manufacturing Co., is serving as consultant. The plamiing of the hall of iron and steel continued with the help of consultant Lowell L. Ilenkel of the Industrial College of the Armed Forces. Dr. Clyde L. Cowan and William C. Cleveland continued in their consultative capacities in nuclear energy and general manufacturing, respectively. Dr. Anthony N. B. Garvan, head curator of civil history, assisted by Peter C. Welsh, associate curator, and Arlene Krimgold, junior curator, continued the planning for the series of halls which will interpret the growth of the United States. Dr. Wilcomb E. Wash- burn, curator of political history, with the assistance of Robert Wid- der, exhibits designer, completed the design for the units of this division. Production of exhibits for the hall of American costume, which was planned by Assistant Curator Anne W. Murray and de- signed by Judith Borgogni and Virginia Kneitel, was well advanced at the close of the year. Repair and reconditioning of period in- teriors for the George Washington drawingroom and bedroom were in progress. On January 3, 1960, a special showing of women's-rights material was prepared for the delegates to the national convention of the National Woman's Party, held in Washington, D.C. During June 1960 a colorful display entitled "America Votes" was presented in the west hall of the Arts and Industries Building. This featured an outstanding collection of banners, tokens, lanterns, and other para- phernalia relating to national political campaigns presented by Ralph E. Becker, and political caricatures and cartoons from the Harry T. Peters collection of American lithography. A special exhibition of Spanish-colonial silver, principally from Ecuador, was installed in the lobby of the Natural History Building. The silver was collected early in this century by Daniel C. Stapleton and lent by his daughter, Mrs. George W. Renchard of Washington. In May 1960 two special exhibitions were placed on display in the coin hall by the division of numismatics. Louis Eliasberg of Balti- more lent his entire collection of United States coins, including the specially designed exhibit cases and featuring an outstanding series of Latin American coins and foreign gold, as well as primitive media of exchange. A selection from the Willis II. du Pont gift of Rus- sian coins and medals, formerly owned by the Grand Duke George Mikhailovich of Russia, was displayed in another exhibition illustrat- ing the life and military exploits of Peter the Great. A nmnber of special exhibitions were shown by the division of 44 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1960 philately during the year, including one of patriotic covers com- memorating the approaching Civil War Centennial observances and another featuring the "Liberty for All" theme used in New York for the National Postage Stamp Show. Considerable improvement in existing exhibits was made by Head Curator Mendel L. Peterson and Acting Curator Edgar M. Howell by clearing the area in front of the Star Spangled Banner and in- stalling Naval and Marine Corps uniforms on the west gallery. Models of the dirigible Akron, the aircraft carrier Shangri-La, and the armored cruiser Pennsylvania were installed in the hall of naval history. From November 20 through December 31, 1959, a special exhibition of the recently acquired and unique W. Stokes Kirk col- lection of United States military insignia and accouterments was held in the rotunda of the Arts and Industries Building. During January and February 1960 the division of naval history presented in the rotunda of the Arts and Industries Building the "Evolution of U.S. Naval Aviation," which included carrier and aircraft models, selected combat paintings, photographs and significant objects ranging from Eugen Ely's aircraft propeller to a group of current air-to-air missiles. Under the chairmanship of Dr. Herbert Friedmann, head curator of zoology, the committee coordinating and supervising the moderni- zation of exhibits in the Natural History Building made a critical review of this program. The exhibits program of the Museum of History and Technology, being coordinated by John C. Ewers, assist- ant director, is concerned primarily with the development of exhibits for the new building. In fields represented by limited museum col- lections, the assembling of specimens has been an essential prelude to the completion of exhibit plans. John E. Anglira continued in charge of exhibition-hall design and the preparation of exhibits for the entire museum. Benjamin W. Lawless, with the assistance of Robert Widder in design, Bela S. Bory in production, and Robert Klinger in the model shop, supervised the exhibits work for the Mu- seum of History and Technology. Rolland O. Hower, assisted by Thomas Baker and Peter DeAnna, supervised the renovation of the exhibition halls in the Museum of Natural History. Continued assistance in the design of renovated halls in existing buildings was given by Richard S. Johnson, design branch chief, and John H. Morrissey, architectural branch chief of the architectural and struc- tural division of the Public Buildings Service, General Services Ad- ministration, and Luther Flouton, Henry R. Kerr, and Charles J. Nora, design architects of that agency. As lighting consultant, Carroll Lusk, museum lighting specialist of Syracuse, N.Y., provided the needed assistance to designers of exhibition halls for the Museum of History and Technology. SECRETARY'S REPORT 45 DOCENT SERVICE Tlie Junior League of Washington continued its volunteer program of conducting guided tours in modernized Smithsonian exhibition halls for school children of the Greater Washington area, under the super- vision of G. Carroll Lindsay, curator of the Smithsonian Museum Service, working with Mrs. Clark Gearhart, chairman of the Smith- sonian Volunteer Docent Committee of the Junior League of Wash- ington, and Mrs. Dean Cowie, cochairman. At the conclusion of the tour season, Mrs. Gearhart was succeeded as chairman by her co- chairman, Mrs. Cowie. J\Irs. E. Tillman Stirling will serve as co- chairman of the Docent Committee for the forthcoming year. During the 1959-60 season, tours were conducted as before in the Halls of Power, Indians and the Eskimo, and Everyday Life in Early America. In addition, two more modernized exhibits were included — the Hall of Gems and Minerals and the Hall of Textiles. During the 6-month season from October 1959 to May 1960, 525 tours were conducted, in which 15,658 children participated, repre- senting an increase of 3,662 over the previous year. For the first time tours were made available to junior high school science students. These included, for this group as well as for ele- mentary school children, the Hall of Gems and Minerals and the Hall of Power. In addition to Mrs. Gearhart and Mrs. Cowie, the members of the Docent Committee were: Mrs. George Armstrong, Mrs. Harrison Brand III, Mrs. Walter A. Edwards, Mrs. William K. Ford, Mrs. George Gerber, ]\Irs. William Graves, Mrs, Frederick Irving, Mrs. Edward Lamont, Mi-s. Robert Larsen, Mrs. Ealph W. Lee III, Mrs. John T. Malone, Mrs. William Minshall, Jr., Mi-s. Minot Mulligan, Mrs. George Pendleton, Mi's. James T. Rasbury, Mrs. Robert Rogers, Mrs. John Schoenfeld, Mrs. W. James Sears, Mrs. John Simmons, Mrs. William D. Sloan, Mrs. James H. Stallings, Mi-s. G. G. Thomas, Mrs. E. Tillman Stirling, Mrs. David Toll, Mrs. Richard Wallis, and Mrs. Marc A. White. BUILDINGS AND EQUIPMENT In the act of May 13, 1960 (P. L. 86-455) Congress appropriated funds for the construction of an east wmg and the air-conditioning of the existing Natural History Building of the Smithsonian. The added space will provide laboratories and workrooms for the scientific staff, more adequate storage space, and the desired climatic control for the preservation of the national collections of anthropology, the natural sciences, and art. Improved facilities for the convenience of the visiting public will also be afforded by this constiuction. Mills, 46 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 19 60 Petticord & Mills, of Washington, D.C., are the architects, and the contract for construction will be supervised by the General Services Administration. The principal contracts for the construction of the ISIuseum of History and Teclinology Building, were awarded September 16, 1959, and work actually commenced October 5. The contracts were awarded to the Norair Engineering Corporation, Washington, D.C., for con- struction of the building. The elevators and escalators will be in- stalled by the Otis Elevator Co. Within the plan of the building's structure, which was carefully reviewed and adopted by the Joint Congressional Committee on Construction and subsequently approved by the Commission of Fine Arts, the Smithsonian Institution's staff has developed designs for exhibits for approximately 38 major areas of historical and technological displays. Workrooms for the cura- torial staff will be located adjacent to the storage areas for the reserve and study collections of cataloged objects, which provide basic data for interested visitors, students, and professional workei-s. Labora- tories for the preservation and scientific study of materials of historical significance, and shops for exhibit construction and main- tenance are included in the plans. The design architects, McKim, Mead & Wliite, advised the Smithsonian Institution during the year on details of construction. Modern-type seating was installed in the auditorium of the Natural History Building to provide more effective use of this hall. Improve- ment in the aisle lighting in the auditorium also was accomplished, with visitors' safety in mind. Two metal buildings erected in the west court of the Natural His- tory Building have provided working space for the exhibits staff as well as production facilities. Recent improvements include the con- struction of an extension on the west side of one buildmg for housing the taxidermy section and a covered storage area along the east side of the other building to furnish protection to the Northwest Indian wooden boats stored by the division of etlinology. Ileraodeling of the exhibits laboratory includes a partial second-floor level, design office, general office, two dark rooms, paint spray room, sanding room, paint storage room, restoration room, enlarged cabinet shop, and gen- eral work area. Lighting installations, installation of ventilating equipment, plumbing and heating revisions, electric service modifica- tions, and related work are also provided. Increasing needs for working space made the proper utilization of available areas imperative. Useful space was gained by the con- struction of second-floor levels in five rooms on the ground floor of the Natural History building. All marble surfaces of the north entrance lobby and vestibule of the Natural History Building were renovated, the bronze surfaces SECRETARY'S REPORT 47 scoured and coated to retard deterioration, the exterior grille doors removed, the center revolving door removed and the original bronze doors rehung, and the ceilings and walls repainted. A public rest area with shade trees, shrubs, sidewalks, curbs, fences and permanent-type benches has been constructed along the north side of the Arts and Industries Building. CHANGES IN ORGANIZATION AND STAFF Effective May 31, 1960, the division of woods was established in the department of botany. Museum of Natural History. Dr. William L. Stern was appointed curator of this division on June 1, 1960. Concurrently the division of woods in the department of science and teclinology was abolished. Dr. Gus W. Van Beek was appointed associate curator of the divi- sion of archeology, department of anthropology, on July 1, 1959. Dr. Richard Cif elli accepted an appointment as associate curator in the division of invertebrate paleontology and paleobotany on July 1, 1959. Another vacancy in this division was filled by the appointment of Erie G. Kauffman as assistant curator on June 15, 1960. Carl H. Scheele was appointed, effective September 29, 1959, assist- ant curator of philately, and Dr. Sami K. Hamarneh, associate cura- tor of medical sciences on September 24, 1959. In the division of cultural history, John N. Pearce was appointed assistant curator on October 5, 1959. The vacancy in the division of industrial cooperation was filled on December 28, 1959, by the ap- point of Dr. Charles O. Houston. On February 1, 1960, Dr. John J. Wurdack reported for duty as associate curator of the division of phanerogams. A. J. Wedderburn, Jr., associate curator of graphic arts, resigned on March 15, 1960, to accept other employment. Dr. Paul Bartsch, who had retired on April 80, 1946, after serving 50 years on the staff of the United States National Museum, and as an honorary associate in the division of moUusks since that date, died at Lebanon, Va., on April 24, 1960. Dr. J. B. Knight, research associate in invertebrate paleontology since January 1, 1955, and from January 1, 1945, to December 31, 1954, associate curator in that division, died at Sarasota, Fla., on March 21, 1960. Respectfully submitted. Remington Kellogg, Director. Dr. Leonard CArancHAEL, Secretary^ Smithsonian Institution. Report on the Bureau of American Ethnolgy Sm: I have the honor to submit the following report on the field researches, office work, and other operations of the Bureau of Ameri- can Etlinology during the fiscal year ended June 30, 1960, conducted in accordance with the act of Congress of April 10, 1928, as amended August 22, 1949, which directs the Bureau "to continue independently or in cooperation anthropological researches among the American Indians and the natives of lands imder the jurisdiction or protection of the United States and the excavation and preservation of archeo- logic remains." SYSTEMATIC RESEARCHES Dr. Frank H. H. Roberts, Jr., Director of the Bureau, devoted part of the year to general supervision of the activities of the Bureau and the River Basin Sui'veys. In July he inspected the work of excavat- ing parties operating in the Pomona Reservoir area in Kansas, the Big Bend and Oahe Reservoir areas in South Dakota, and a portion of the Oahe Basin in North Dakota. Three of the parties were from co- operating agencies and three represented the River Basin Surveys. In addition, he visited two excavations that were not a part of the salvage program, one conducted by a University of Nebraska field party and the other by a group from the State Historical Society of Nebraska. Dr. Roberts was accompanied by Carroll Burroughs from the Branch of Archeology of the Washington office of the National Park Service and Dr. Robert L. Stephenson, Chief of the Missouri Basin Project of the River Basin Surveys. "While at Pierre, S. Dak., they participated in an informal conference attended by leaders of all the parties working in the Plains during the summer, many of their student helpers, and representatives from various universities and museums in the area. Virtually every phase of Missouri Basin archeology was discussed. In November Dr. Roberts went to Lincoln, Nebr., where he reviewed the operations of the field headquarters and laboratory of the River Basin Surveys and took part in the sessions of the Plains Archeologi- cal Conference at the University of Nebraska. At Omaha he met with representatives of the Corps of Engineei-s and the Region Two Office 48 SECRETARY'S REPORT 49 of the National Park Service to consider various problems pertaining to salvage operations in the Missouri Basin. During late December and early January Dr. Roberts represented the Bureau at the meetings of the American Anthropological Associ- ation in Mexico City. He also visited various museums and archeo- logical sites in the surrounding area. Late m January after his return to Washington he participated in the meetings of the Commit- tee for the Recovery of Archeological Remains held at the Depart- ment of the Interior. He presented a summary of the results of the activities of the River Basin Surveys during the preceding year and joined in the discussions pertaining to future plans for the Inter- Agency Archeological Salvage Program. In April Dr. Roberts went to Lincoln to inspect the operations of the Missouri Basin project office and met with representatives of Region Two of the National Park Service to consider the fiscal situ- ation and fieldwork to be carried on during the 1960 summer season. Dr. Roberts assisted in the preparation of budgets and plans for the various River Basin Surveys parties which were to be leaving Lincoln early in June. At the request of the National Park Service, Dr. Roberts was au- thorized to serve as a member of an advisory group for the Wetherill Mesa excavations at Mesa Verde National Park. He went to Mesa Verde late in May and with other members of the gi-oup inspected the work under way at two largo cliff ruins and in the project labo- ratory. The group spent one day discussing various problems pertain- ing to the project and made a number of recommendations with respect to the continuance of the investigations. Dr. Roberts did the technical editing of a series of four reports on archeological excavations in three reservoir areas. They will appear as River Basin Surveys Papers Nos. 21-24 in Bulletin 179 of the Bureau of American Etlinology. Dr. Henry B. Collins, anthropologist, continued his Eskimo studies and other Arctic activities. He prepared an article on the native peoples of the Arctic for a forthcoming edition of the Encyclo'paedia Britannica^ and his paper on Eskimo art appeared in the first issue of Dartmouth College's new journal devoted to Polar research. In another paper, published in Current Anthropology, he discussed recent archeological discoveries in Alaska and Siberia and assessed the roles of local culture growth, diffusion, trade, population movements, tradi- tion, and geographical patterning as causative factors involved in the development and continuity of prehistoric Eskimo cultm-e in the Bering Strait area. Dr. Collins was elected to the Board of Governors of the Arctic Institute of North America for a 3-year term. He continued to serve 50 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 19 60 as a member of two Arctic Institute committees: (1) the Publications Committee, which is responsible for preparation of the Institute's quarterly journal Arctic and its two series, Technical Papers and Special Publications, and (2) the Research Committee, wliich plans the Institute's research program by passing upon grant applications, acting as a scientific advisory group for military agencies engaged in conduct of basic research in the Arctic and Antarctic, and planning programs of Polar research which the Institute administers for Gov- ernment agencies and other organizations. He also continued to serve as chairman of the directing committee of the Arctic Bibliography, a comprehensive work prepared by the Arctic Institute of North America for the Department of Defense. The purpose of the bibliography is to provide a key to scientific publi- cations in the principal libraries of the United States and Canada relating to the Arctic and sub-Arctic areas and to low-temperature conditions, and to assemble and systematize this material so that it may be readily available to scientists and others concerned with prob- lems of northern research and development. In continuation of tliis program, Volume 8 of Arctic Bibliography (1,281 pages) was issued by the Government Printing Office in September 1959. It summarizes and indexes the contents of 5,622 publications in all fields of science. Volume 9, containing abstracts of 7,192 publications, is in press, and work is in progress on Volume 10. Covering the entire range of scien- tific literature in all languages on the Arctic and subarctic regions of the world, the Arctic Bibliography to date has abstracted and indexed the contents of 56,278 publications relating to these areas and to low- temperature conditions. In July 1959 Dr. Collins submitted a proposal to the National Science Foundation for the Arctic Institute of North America to trans- late Russian anthropological publications relating to northern Eurasia. Much of the Soviet and earlier Russian anthropological literature, particularly that on the archeology, ethnology, and physical anthropology of Siberia, has a direct bearing on problems of American anthropology. However, this Russian literature is not available to the great majority of English-speaking anthropologists. English translations of selected articles and monograi)lis from Russian journals and series would begin to meet this long-felt need. In March 1960 the National Science Foundation awarded a grant to the Arctic Institute for the translation project and the work began in April, under the direction of Dr. Henry N. ISfichael of Temple University. An advisory committee, of which Dr. Collins is chairman, selects materials for translation and advises on matters pertaining to the publication and distribution of the translations. The translations will be printed in an inexpensive format, as a special publication series of the Arctic Institute, and offered for sale at modest prices. SECRETARY'S REPORT 51 AVitli the support of grants from the American Philosophical So- ciety and the National Science Foimdation, Dr. Collins left for Europe June 24 to make a comparative study of archeological materials in European museums and to attend the 34th International Congress of Americanists in Vieima and the 6th International Congress of Anthro- pological and Ethnological Sciences in Paris. At the beginning of the fiscal year, Dr. William C. Sturtevant, etlinologist, was concluding a period of fieldwork begun in February 1959 among the Seminole Indians in Florida. Returning north, he spent July 8 in and around Charleston, S.C., where he examined several old Southeastern Indian specimens and a portrait of Osceola, the famous Seminole leader, in the Charleston Museum, visited Osce- ola's grave at nearby Fort Moultrie, and briefly investigated modern Gullah Negro basketmaking near Fort Moultrie. On his return to Washington, Dr. Sturtevant spent most of his time at work on the materials collected during his extended field trip in Florida. He also prepared a paper on the agriculture of the 16th- century Taino Indians of the West Indies, which he delivered at the 58th Annual Meeting of the American Anthropological Association in Mexico City in December. While in Mexico Dr. Sturtevant visited the impressive Maya archeological site at Palenque and then spent four days observing the lacquer-making industry at Uruapan, Mi- choacdn, and making a small collection illustrating this craft for the National Museum. In mid-November, Dr. Sturtevant spent two days at Newtown, Cattaraugus Reservation, New York, for the wake and funeral of Solon Jones, who was a leader of the Longhouse religion, a gi*eat expert on Seneca ceremonies, a well-known orator in Seneca, and in his younger days a famous lacrosse player. Mr. Jones will be greatly missed by his many Iroquois friends and coreligionists and also by anthropologists familiar with his commimity. Dr. Sturtevant attended the 12th Conference on Iroquois Research (Red House, N.Y., in October), the annual meetings of the Associa- tion for Asian Studies (New York, in April), and the Society for American Archaeology (New Haven, in May). Dr. Wallace L. Chafe, linguist, was engaged in fieldwork on the Tonawanda Reservation in New York State during July, August, and early September. He collected material for the completion of a Seneca dictionary and recorded and transcribed several religious texts which are part of the Longhouse ceremonial pattern. This field- work was sponsored by the New York State Museum and Science Service in cooperation with the Bureau of American Ethnology. Dr. Chafe served as chairman of the 12th Conference on Iroquois Research, held at Red House, N.Y., October 16-18. 52 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1960 During the first three weeks of November Dr. Chafe traveled to North Dakota and Oklahoma to acquaint himself with the present number and location of speakers of the Caddoan languages. This language family includes Arikara, Pawnee, Wichita, and Caddo. He obtained estimates of the number of speakers of each language, col- lected word lists, and made lexicostatistic comparisons. The trip was made under a grant from the American Philosophical Society. He returned to North Dakota for the first three weeks of June to collect further material on the Arikara language. He obtained phonological, grammatical, and lexical data which will be used in a comparative study of the languages of the Caddoan family. Dr. Chafe published articles on the Seneca language in Language and the International Journal of ATnerican Linguistics. In March he completed an index of the journal Language for the years 1955-59. Under the auspices of the American Philosopliical Society, he began work during the spring on a project designed to obtain estimates of the present number of speakers of each of the Indian languages of North America. RIVER BASIN SURVEYS The River Basin Surveys continued its participation in the Inter- Agency archeological and paleontological salvage program. Its ac- tivities were in areas to be flooded or otherwise destroyed by the construction of large dams. The work was carried on in cooperation with the National Park Service and the Bureau of Reclamation of the Department of the Interior, the Corps of Engineers of the Depart- ment of the Army, and a number of State and local institutions. The investigations during the fiscal year 1959-60 were supported by a transfer of $122,055 from the National Park Service to the Smith- sonian Institution. Of that sum, $98,055 was for use in the Missouri Basin and $24,000 for investigations along the Chattahoochee River in Alabama and Georgia. On July 1, 1959, the Missouri Basin Project had a carryover of $10,764, and that, with the new appropriation, pro- vided a total of $108,819 for the program in the Missouri Basin. Tlie grand total of funds available for the River Basin Surveys for 1959- 60 was $132,819. Activities in the field throughout the .year were mainly concerned with excavations, although some limited surveys were carried on and one party made a series of studies of skeletal material in museums and laboratories throughout the Missouri Basin. Because of a reduc- tion in funds, fieldwork was more limited than in the previous year. On July 1, 1959, there were three excavating parties working in the Missouri Basin in South Dakota, and the mobile group was operating in Nebraska. One of the parties in South Dakota was digging sites in the Big Bend Reservoir area and the other two were working in SECRETARY'S REPORT 53 the Oahe Reservoir area. The excavating parties completed their work and returned to the headquarters at Lincoln, Nebr., in August, while the mobile party finished its season on August 21, after having visited 22 institutions and 11 field camps in six Missouri Basm and three adjacent States. In December one small party made a brief trip to the Lewis and Clark Lake above the Gavins Point Dam to examine a site which was being destroyed by wave action. The same party also visited a mound group near Mitchell, S. Dak., where imauthorized digging had been reported. The cooperation of the owner was obtained to prevent fur- ther destruction of the site wliich is an exceptional one for that area. From Mitchell the party proceeded to the Big Bend Dam site and made an inspection of the construction activities then under way. A second party returned to the Lewis and Clark Lake in February and spent eight days salvaging materials from the site which had been examined in December. In addition to a member of the River Basin Surveys staff there was a representative from the Laboratory of An- thropology of the University of Nebraska. These men were assisted by the area engineer, the reservoir naturalist, and the reservoir man- ager. The cooperative effort produced materials which identified the site as being attributable to the Woodland cultures. Activities along the Chattahoochee River in Alabama-Georgia were resumed in Jan- uary when a survey-testing party began operations in the Walter F. George Reservoir area which continued until mid-June when work was stopped and the head of the party returned to Lincoln, Nebr. Early in June one party began excavations in the Big Bend Reservoir area near the dam axis and another started digging at a mound site near the North Dakota-South Dakota boundary in the Oahe Reservoir area. A third party began studies the latter part of the month at tlie site of historic Fort Sully nortli of Pierre in the Oahe Reservoir Basin. All three were continuing their investigations at the end of the fiscal year. As of June 30, 1960, the River Basin Surveys had carried on reconnaissance work or excavations in 255 reservoir basins located in 29 States. In addition, four canal areas and two lock projects had also been investigated. The sites located during the years between 1946, when the program started, and the close of the fiscal year total 4,948, and of that number 1,154 were recommended for excavation or limited testing. Because of the large number of sites and the lack of sufficient time and funds for the work, complete excavation has not been possible in any but a few exceptionally small ones. For that reason, when the term "excavation" is used, it implies digging only as much of a site as is deemed necessary to obtain a good sample of the materials and information to be found there. 54 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1960 Preliminary appraisal reports have been issued for most of the reservoir areas which were surveyed. In a few cases no archeological manifestations were noted and no general report was distributed. During the last fiscal year prelimmary appraisal reports for the Oliver Dam, the Walter F. George Dam and Lock project, and the Columbia Dam and Lock project on the Chattahoochee River were nnmeographed and distributed. Since the beginning of the salvage program 188 such reports have been issued. The discrepancy between the number of reservoirs surveyed and that of the repoits issued is due to the fact that in several cases a number of projects located within a single basin or sub-basin were covered in one report. By June 30, 1960, 487 sites in 54 reservoir areas located in 19 differ- ent States had been either tested or dug sufficiently to provide good information about them. The sites investigated range in age from those represting hunting and gathering cultures of about 10,000 years ago to early historic Indian village locations and the remains of fron- tier trading and Army posts of European origin. The results ob- tained from some of the excavations have been published in the Smithsonian Institution Miscellaneous Collections, in Bulletms of tlie Bureau of American Ethnology, and m various scientific journals and historical publications. During the year River Basin Surveys Papers Nos. 21-24, comprising Bulletin 179 of the Bureau of Ameri- can Etlmology, were sent to the printer. The papers consist of a report on excavations in the Texarkana Reservoir Basin on the Sul- phur River in east Texas, the Coralville Reservoir area on the Des Moines River in Iowa, and two detailed accounts about Avork in vari- ous sites in the McNary Reservoir area on the Columbia River. The Texarkana report was written by Edward B. Jelks. The Coralville paper was prepared by Warren W. Caldwell and the McNary Reser- voir papers were the work of Joel L. Shiner and Douglas Osborne. The latter two round out and complete the data which were contained in Osborne's River Basin Surveys Paper No. 8, Bulletin 165, "Exca- vations in the McNary Reservoir Basin near Umatilla, Oregon." At the end of the year the editors were working on Carl F. Miller's manuscript which gives in detail the results of his excavations at the John H. Kerr Reservoir basin in the Roanoke River, Virginia-North Carolina. On June 30, 1960, the distribution of reservoir projects that had been surveyed for archeological remains was as follows: Alabama, 4; Arkansas, 1; California, 20; Colorado, 24; Georgia, 8; Idaho, 11; Illinois, 2; Iowa, 3; Kansas, 10; Kentucky, 2; Louisiana, 2; Minne- sota, 1 ; Mississippi, 1 ; Montana, 15 ; Nebraska, 28 ; New Mexico, 1 ; North Dakota, 13; Ohio, 2; Oklahoma, 7; Oregon, 27; Pennsylvania, 2; South Carolina, 1; South Dakota, 10; Tennessee, 4; Texas, 19; Virginia, 2; Washington, 11; West Virginia, 3; Wyoming, 22. SECRETARY'S REPORT 55 Excavations had been made or were mider way in reservoir areas in Arkansas, 1; California, 5; Colorado, 1; Iowa, 1; Georgia, 7; Kansas, 5 ; Montana, 1 ; Nebraska, 1 ; New Mexico, 1 ; North Dakota, 4; Oklahoma, 2; Oregon, 4; South Carolina, 2; South Dakota, 4; Texas, 7 ; Virginia, 1 ; Washington, 4 ; AVest Virginia, 1 ; Wyoming, 2. The preceding figures include only the work of Hiver Basin Surveys or that where there was direct cooperation between the Surveys and local mstitutions. The work done by State and local institutions imder agreements with the National Park Service has not been in- cluded because complete information about them is not available in the River Basin Surveys office. The National Park Service, the Bureau of Reclamation, the Corps of Engmeers and other Army personnel, and various State and local institutions contributed helpful cooperation throughout the year. Transportation and guides were provided by the Corps of Engineers for the reconnaissance in one of the reservoir areas, and invaluable help was received through the commanding officer at Fort Benning in Georgia who assigned certain Army personnel to assist in some of the activities in the portion of the Walter F. George Reservoir Basin which lies in the Fort Benning Reservation. In addition, the Army Air Command at Lawson Field furnished a helicopter so that aerial photographs could be made of major archeological sites and current excavations, as well as tlie progress in construction of both the Colum- bia Dam and Lock and the Walter F. George Dam and Lock. In the Missouri Basin the project engineers for the Oahe Reservoir pro- vided storage space for equipment and also space for temporary living accommodations. Jilechanical equipment was lent in several instances by the construction agency, which accelerated both the stripping of the top soil from sites and the back-filling of trenches and test pits. The field personnel of all of the cooperating agencies assisted the party leaders from the River Basin Surveys in numerous ways and the relationship was excellent in all areas. Both in Washmgton and in the field the National Park Service continued to serve as the liaison between the various agencies. The Park Service also prepared the estimates and justifications for the funds needed to carry on the sal- vage program. Along the Chattahoochee River the Georgia Histor- ical Coimnission, the University of Georgia, and various local clubs and groups of citizens in both Alabama and Georgia assisted the leader of the River Basin Surveys party in many ways. General supervision of the program was carried on from the main office in Washington, while the activities in the Missouri Basin con- tinued to operate from the field headquarters and laboratory at Lincoln, Nebr. The latter also provided equipment and office assist- ance for the Chattahoochee River project. The Lincoln laboratory 579421"— 61— 5 56 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1960 processed the materials collected by excavating parties in the Mis- souri Basin and also handled those from the Chattahoochee Basin. Washington o-fjice. — Tlie main headquarters of the Kiver Basin Surveys at the Bureau of American Etluiology continued throughout the year under the direction of Dr. Frank H. H. Koberts, Jr. Carl F. Miller, archeologist, was based at that office and from time to tune assisted the Director in some of the general administrative problems. Harold A. Pluscher, archeologist, worked under the general super- vision of the Washington office but because of lack of space and labora- tory facilities continued to work at the field headquarters in Lincoln, Nebr. At the beginning of the fiscal year Mr. Miller was occupied with the technical report on excavations which he previously conducted at the Hosterman Site in the Oahe Keservoir basin in South Dakota. In September he attended a conference on eastern archeology held at Ligonier, Pa., under the auspices of the Carnegie JMuseiun of Pittsburgh and composed of a gi-oup of invited guests. The problems discussed were mainly concerned with the Paleo-Indian, Eastern Archaic, and Woodland cultures. In October Mr. Miller made a survey of the Sutton Reservoir area in West Virginia. In November he attended the Southeastern Archeological Conference held at Macon, Ga. He completed his report on the Hosterman Site in February. Durmg April he made a survey of archeological sites along the Cow- pasture River in Bath County, Virginia, investigating a number of small rock mounds and several open sites. Durmg the year Mr. Miller examined and reported on several collections of artifacts which were sent in from various areas in the East and Southeast. He also gave a number of talks before various groups and societies in the Washington area. At the beginning of the fiscal year Mr. Huscher was in the Lincoln office working on maps, records, and collections from the Oliver Dam and Reservoir, the Columbia Dam and Ix)ck, and the Walter F. George Dam and Lock in the Chattahoochee Basin between Alabama and Georgia. In July he attended a field conference held at Pierre, S. Dak. In November he went to Macon, Ga., and participated in the South- eastern Archeological Conference held there. On his return to Lincoln he attended the Plains Conference which was held at the University of Nebraska. His three appraisal reports on the Chatta- lioochee projects were completed in October, November, and December. They were processed at the Lincoln office and were distributed from the Washington office in April. In January Mr. Huscher returned to the Alabama-Georgia area where he resumed his field investigations in the Walter F. George Reservoir area. He returned to Lincoln late in June and at the end of the fiscal year was on annual leave. SECRETARY'S REPORT 57 Alabama-Georgia. — From January 19 to June 13 a series of test excavations was carried on at 10 sites in the area to be flooded by the Walter F. George Dam and Lock project. Six of tlie sites were in Georgia and four in Alabama. Because the season was unusually wet, work Avas limited for much of the time to sites in the sandy bottoms. Ai each location a number of pits 10 feet square were sunk through the deposits to sterile subsoil. At one of the sites in Georgia the main occupation appeared to have been Early Mississippian, although there was a thin surface overlay of the late Creek potsherds. There were some indications that Weeden Island peoples had been there for a time, and in the bottom levels decomposed flints similar to those which occur in abundance on the Macon Plateau were present. The various materials from the site suggest a long period of occupation or several occupations at intervals covering a considerable span of years. At two of the Georgia sites there were large plowed-down mounds with indications of village areas. One of them presumably dates from the Archaic period, and the other, in addition to Archaic materials from levels below the mound, also gave evidence of Weeden Island affilia- tions. Several of the sites contained Woodland materials, and one of those in Alabama presumably was the location of the Yuchi village mentioned by William Bartram and Benjamin Hawkins in their re- ports on travels through the Creek country in the 18th century. Dur- ing the field season collections were made from a total of 48 sites, 26 of which had not been previously investigated. Field lots of specimens, most of which were excavated, numbering 1,680, were added to the previous 1,086 field lots collected in the 1958 and 1959 seasons. Tliis makes a total of 2,766 field lots for the three seasons of investigations along the Chattahoochee. In addition to the work of the River Basin Surveys parties there were cooperative projects by the University of Georgia, the Univer- sity of Alabama, and Florida State University. At the end of the fiscal year the University of Georgia was excavating a large platform mound near Stark's Landing in Georgia. The University of Alabama was digging in a village site adjacent to a large mound near Upper Francis Landing in Alabama. The Florida State University party was beginning investigations at the Spanish Fort of Apalachicola and the adjacent aboriginal village near Holy Trinity, Ala. Missouri River Basin. — The Missouri Basin Project, for the four- teenth consecutive year, continued to operate from the field head- quarters and laboratory in Lincoln, Nebr. Dr. Robert L. Stephenson served as chief of the project throughout the year. Activities in- cluded surveys, excavations, analysis of materials, and reporting on results. During the summer months efFort-s were mainly concerned with excavations. Analyses and the preparation of reports received 58 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1960 tho major attention during the winter months. The special chronol- ogy program, begun two years ago, continued to receive attention througliout the year. At the beginning of the fiscal year the permanent staff, in addition to the chief, consisted of five archeologists, one administrative assist- ant, one clerk-stenographer, one part-time file clerk, one clerk-typist, one illustrator, one photographer, and three museum aides. Tem- porary employees included one cook and six crewmen. During the summer field season one archeologist and one physical anthropologist were temporarily added to the staff. During July, 11 additional crewmen were employed. The temporary archeologist was terminated on August 28, and the temporary physical anthro- pologist on August 21. All field crewmen were terminated during the last week of August. On September 4, one permanent archeologist resigned to return to graduate school, and on May 27 one permanent archeologist resigned to join the staff at the Univereity of Tennessee. On January 2, the clerk-typist resigned, and on February 5, the clerk-stenographer re- signed. On February 23, a clerk-stenographer joined the staff but resigned on April 1 and was replaced on May 2. The file clerk was transferred from part time to full time on June 27. The temporary cook was transferred to laboratory assistant on September 1 and to the peiTOanent staff on January 2. During the period from April 2 to June 1, one archeologist was lent to the National Park Service to conduct archeological excavations at Colonial National Historical Park, Yorktown, Va. At the end of the fiscal year there were three archeologists in addi- tion to the cliief, one administrative assistant, one file clerk, one clerk- stenographer, one illustrator, one photographer, three museum aides, and one laboratory assistant on the permanent staff, and 12 crewmen on the temporary staff. During the year there were nine Smithsonian Institution River Basin Surveys field parties at work within the Missouri Basin. Two were in the Oahe Reservoir area, one in the Big Bend Reservoir area, and one (a mobile party) covered the Missouri Basin area in general during July and August. Two small parties made investigations during December and February in the Gavins Point Reservoir area. Two parties were excavating in the Oahe Reservoir area and one in the Big Bend Reservoir area during June. Other fieldwork in the Missouri Basin during the year included 10 parties from State institutions operating under cooperative agree- ments with the National Park Service and in cooperation with the Smithsonian Institution in the Inter- Agency Archeological Salvage Prosrram. SECRETARY'S REPORT 59 Eeduction of funds for fiscal year 1960 necessitated a curtailment of field activities, in comparison with past years, and a shift in the methods of carrying on the salvage progi'am. Despite the accom- plishments of previous years in salvaging archeological values from the many reservoir areas in the Missouri Basm, scores of sites still remain to be studied and the reservoirs are rapidly nearing comple- tion. The enforced reduction of activities presented a critical prob- lem. The shift, or readjustment, in methods of fieidwork seemed the only reasonable expedient to accomplish the mission set out for the Salvage Program. This was a shift from major excavation of key sites and sampling of nearby, related sites, to a mere sampling of both key and secondary sites. This change in emphasis will be satisfactory for at least two seasons because of the earlier work in these same areas when full-scale excavations vrere possible at a niun- ber of key sites. There is a framework of information from exten- sively excavated sites against which the data from the newly sam.pled sites can be evaluated. There are, however, many major sites, outside the known cultural framework, that promise to provide an abundance of new information if excavated, but little or nothing if only sampled. Another year, these sites must be excavated or lost forever. The sampling approach, in the face of limited field activities, produced worthwhile results in the field seasons of 1959 and 1960. Full-scale excavations of key sites, though, must again be carried on in succeed- ing years. At the beginning of the fiscal year. Dr. Warren W. Caldwell and a crew of six were engaged in testing a series of sites in the Big Bend Reservoir area. The specific locality was that of the construction area of the dam along the right bank of the ^Missouri River in Lyman County, South Dakota, and extending upstream to the area of the old Lower Brule subagency, a distance of approximately 12 miles. Sam- pling investigations were made at 19 of the recorded sites in the area and two new sites were located, recorded, and tested. A variety of cultural manifestations is represented. The first group of these sites is located near the mouth of Good Sol- dier Creek in the area where the powerhouse and right abutment for the Big Bend dam is to be built. Site 39LM235 had been partially de- stroyed by landing- ramp construction but was extensively tested in the remaining portions. Site 39L1VI236 Avas inmidated by extreme high water of the Fort Randall Reservoir and tests made in it in the latter part of the season, after the water had receded, again demonstrated the uselessness of working a site that had been flooded. Sites 39LIVI237 and 39LM238 were examined with limited test pits. All four sites consisted of stratified concentrations of refuse material partially ex- posed in the cut bank along the river and creek. Veiy little artifact 60 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1960 material was recovered this season and the results of the tests proved to be of small diagnostic value. The first three appear to have been sporadically occupied camping places. The fourth, the Good Soldier Creek site (39LM238), previously investigated, is a stratified site of Plains Woodland affiliation overlain by a Mississippian component. A series of six sites near the mouth of Councelor Creek was investi- gated. Site 39LM240 was briefly tested and proved to be another sporadically occupied camp site with a few potsherds of the lona types suggesting occupation in the later ceramic period of circular earth lodges. Site 39LM234 was extensively tested with a series of 10 test pits scattered tlirough the multitude of hunmiocks and depres- sions on the surface. Results were disappointing but adequate to demonstrate that it was the location of a village of one of the late periods in the area. Sites 39LM88 and 39LM89, newly located in 1959, and the Tom Rattler site (39LM214) were briefly tested with very little diagnostic material being recovered. The Useful Heart site (39LM6) was extensively tested. There a sterile mantle 3 to 4 feet in depth covered the remains of a village of late circular houses related to the Stanley Focus. A lower level of occupation at a depth of 6.5 feet represented an earlier time level with pottery related to the Over Focus. The next group of sites upstream (3901229, 230, 231, and 233) were all briefly tested with negative results and written off as small, sporadically occupied camp sites. A fifth site in this group, the Pretty Head site (39L1M232) was not investigated as it Avas the location of a large village and is scheduled for more extensive excavation than time would allow in the 1959 season. It is the only site in that imme- diate vicinity where additional work is required. The next group upstream included site 39L1VI217, where brief testing produced only scattered evidence of sporadic occupation, and four significantly productive sites. The School site (39LM21G) was the remains of a large village of circular earth lodges and contained pottery of lona types. One house quadrant and several test trenches were excavated. The Crazy Bull site (39LM219) was another large village site of circular earth lodges and provided pottery of the lona, Stanley, and Talking Crow types. Half a house and several test trenches were exca- vated. Site 39LM220, likewise, had been a village of circular earth lodges and it yielded pottery predominantly of the lona types. There a half house and several test trenches were excavated. Site 3901221 was a group of three moderate-size burial mounds. Trenching in them uncovered burial pits, infant burials, and scattered human bones. The artifacts were not abundant but were sufficient to demonstrate a prob- able relationship of the site to the Truman iMoimd group (39BF224) excavated by Robert W. Neuman in 1958. Finally a brief investigation SECRETARY'S REPORT 61 of one feature was made at the Hickey Brothers site (39LM4), ex- cavated by Bernard Golden in 1958. There a probable rectangular house pattern was partially uncovered, but the data from the site still are inadequate for a convincing demonstration of the cukural group to which it belongs. In all, the Caldwell party examined 21 sites, of which 1 was a burial mound group, 1 was a large village probably of the rectangular house period, 4 were large villages of late circular earth lodges, 1 was a stratified village of rectangular earth lodges overlain by an occupa- tion of later, circular earth lodges, and 14 sites which were sporadi- cally occupied camps producing little diagnostic material. Except for the Pretty Head site (39LM232), all others in this area may now be written oif as not requiring further investigation unless sometliing new is uncovered in the course of construction of the Big Bend Dam. The Caldwell party terminated the season's work on August 6, after 9 weeks in the field. The second River Basin Surveys party in the field at the beginning of the year was a team of physical anthropologists consisting of William M. Bass, III, and two assistants. They were engaged in a survey of hmnan skeletal materials from all the reservoir areas in the Missouri Basin, as well as skeletal materials from other institu- tions and areas outside reservoirs for the purpose of bringing together data on all the presently extant Indian remains from the Plains area. They visited all the field camps, assisting in the excavation of burials where needed, and went to all the museums and other repositories of archeological materials in the general area. They took anthropometric measurements on the remains of over 2,000 individuals, studying 22 institutional collections and visiting 11 field camps in Oklahoma, Kansas, INIissouri, Nebraska, Iowa, Wisconsin, Minnesota, South Dakota, and North Dakota. The analyses of the scores of measure- ments, both cranial and postcranial, taken on each of the 2,000 indi- viduals, will provide the first broad study of the physical character- istics of the Indians who occupied the prehistoric villages in the various reservoir areas in the Missouri Basin. With the data on the differences between the physical types, the archeologist will be in a much better position to understand the cultural movements of peoples between villages and village areas. This field party was materially assisted, tlirough the kindness of Dr. Wilton K. Krogman, by a grant- in-aid to Bass from the University of Pennsylvania Child Growth and Development Center. The party completed its season on August 21, a iter 9 weeks in the field. The third River Basin Surveys field party of the 1959 season began work in the Little Bend area of Sully County, South Dakota, in the Oahe Reservoir, on July 2. It consisted of a crew of seven under the 62 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 19 60 direction of Dr. Charles H. McNutt. This party, like that of Caldwell in the Big Bend Reservoir, spent the season making a series of small- scale test excavations in a large number of sites along a restricted area of the IVIissouri River. The crew was supplemented in mid- season by 5 additional crewmen, making a total party of 12. Sample excavations were conducted at 18 of the 22 previously recorded sites in the Little Bend. The remaining four sites are of sufficient eleva- tion to remain above water and also appear to be of minor significance. In addition, 11 new sites were located and recorded but only one was of sufficient value to warrant testing and mapping. The uniformity of the cultural materials from the Little Bend is rather remarkable. Only two sites (39SL12 and 39SL13) provided any evidence of long-rectangular house villages, and that is only in the form of Thomas Riggs types of pottery. All the other sites had been small to large villages of circular earth lodges providing sherds of onl}^ two major classes of pottery, Russell Ware and Stanley Ware. House depressions in all sites are uniformly circular and are usually either ringed, shallow depressions, or unringed deep depressions. Russell Ware pottery occurs characteristically with the former and Stanley Ware pottery with the latter. The consistency of this asso- ciation is striking. Villages with ringed house depressions and Rus- sell Ware pottery were usually compact and consisted of 1 large (presumably ceremonial) house and from 5 to 10 small (presumably domiciliary) houses. No fortifications were found in association with any of these villages. Villages with unringed, deep house depressions and Stanley Ware pottery were either compact or diffuse and may or may not have had a particularly large (ceremonial) house and a forti- fication ditch. Some historic material was found in three of the four sites of this type examined. The individual sites are summarized briefly. Site 39SL12 consists of the remains of a large ceremonial house and at least seven smaller houses located on a low, bench promontory. Three midden heaps and three cache pits were tested and the site was mapped. Xo defensive ditch could be found. Pottery consisted of both Russell Vrare and Thomas Riggs Ware. Site 39SL13 is likewise situated on a low bench promontory and consists of some 40 house depressions, including 2 large ceremonial houses but no defensive ditch was located. There, 3 house depressions were tested, and 1 midden heap, 10 cache pits, 2 fireplaces, and 8 other test pits excavated, and the site was mapped. Pottery consisted of Stanley Ware, Russell Ware, and Thomas Riggs Ware, and a few objects of historic origin were found. They are the only two sites in the Little Bend area that suggest occupation during the long, rectangular-house period. Site 39SL19, located on the floodplain, was a compact village with deep depressions surrounded by a semicircular fortification ditch. Secretary's Report I960 m-mi I '.V plate 1 'ii :'^»?;, f^ M ■f' 1. (cs'l cxcaxalioii iii sue .■>v,>J,l'/. a iai-gr xiUau'c ut circLilar can lilcjcliics, iii ilic Jjiuic Bend area of the Oahe Reservoir, producing Stanley Ware pottery. Examples of architec- tural style, settlement pattern, and artifact materials can be obtained by a series of tests of this kind at each site. Ri\'er Basin Survey's. 2. Expanded test excavation in edge of circular house at sile 39SLl,i, in the Little Bend area of the Oahe Reservoir. Center of house is to rijjht of picture. A leaner post of the house wall can be seen to right of menu board. Large excavated cache pit is shown in center of picture and an uuexcavated cache pit appears as dark semicircle at left. River Basin Surveys. Si'creurv's Report 1960 PLATE 2 lOCM 1. Section of a large cedar {Juniperui) cut by a Alissuuri Basin rrojeci-Sniithsonian Institution field party in 1958. The tree stood high on the bluffs overlooking the "Grand Detour," the great loop of the Missouri now called the Big Bend. The earliest annual ring dates from ca. A.D. 1770. This log provides a fine illustration of variable tree growth in response to varying rainfall. The drought years of the 1840's and the 1930's are plainly visible. 1'' I* '■ ^' I ■?7iP?!R5l .'^'^N.?^ -v^ 'l i -- r- * / . .. . _;^ 2. View of soil profile section in site 39BF2. a deeply buried, multicomponent site in the Big Bend Reservoir. Soil samples were taken from seven zones in this cut to assist in determining the geologic-climatic periods of the various occupations. River Basin Surveys. SECRETARY'S REPORT 63 Tests were made in one niidden heap, a cache pit, and eight other test pits, and the site was mapped. An extensive sample of Stanley Ware pottery was obtamed. Site 39SL3, located on a low terrace, was a compact area of 26 house depressions but no evidence of a fortification ditch or large ceremonial house. Four houses were tested and three cache pits, three fireplaces, and a burial were excavated. The site was mapped. Pottery was of the Stanley "Ware and some historic objects were recovered. Site 39SL28, located on the low brush prom- ontory just east of 39SL12, consisted of one large ceremonial house depression and at least seven other smaller house depressions. One house was tested, four middens and two cache pits were excavated, and the site was mapped. Stanley Ware pottery predominated m the collections but some Kussell Ware was also found. These three sites and the one multicomponent site listed in the Thomas Riggs group above were the only sites with a predominance of Stanley Ware pottery. At the following sites Russell Ware pottery predominated. Site 39SL8, situated on a low terrace, represents a diffuse village of numerous house depressions. Three houses were tested, and one midden, three cache pits, one fireplace, and one test pit were excavated, and the site was mapped. Site 39SL30 consisted of two very shallow house depressions on a low terrace promontory. One house was tested, and two middens and a fireplace were excavated. A map was made of the site. Site 39SL24 was a small, compact village contain- ing one large ceremonial house depression and at least five smaller depressions located on the low terrace above the floodplain. Four houses were tested, a midden, a fireplace, and a cache pit were exca- vated, and the site was mapped. Site 39SL202, the remains of another village situated on a low terrace above the floodplain, con- sisted of two rather large, ringed house depressions. Both houses were tasted, two middens, and two fireplaces were excavated, and the site was mapped. Site 39SL36 contained only one very faint house depression on a high (or second) terrace and a small rock cairn. The house was tested, four middens and a fireplace were excavated, and the site was mapped. It was a small, poor site but some addi- tional house depressions may have been present. Site 39SL50, newly located in 1959, consisted of two shallow house depressions on a small terrace promontory. One house was tested, a midden and a test pit were excavated, and the site was mapped. It was a small, unpro- ductive site. Site 39SL23 consisted of a large ceremonial house depression and 17 smaller house depressions located on a high (or second) terrace above the floodplain. A considerable quantity of collared rim sherds were present in the collections. Three houses were tested, a midden, four cache pits, and two test pits were exca- vated, and the site was mapped. Site 39SL21 was a single house 64 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1960 depression and two rock cairns located on tlie high terrace. Tests of cairns were negative. The house was tested, two cache pits, a fire- place, and two test pits were excavated, and the site was mapped. Site 39SL22 was a large ceremonial house depression and three smaller depressions situated on the high terrace. One house was tested, two cache pits, a fireplace, and two test pits were excavated, and the site was mapped. Site 39SL20, consisting of two faint house depressions on the lower terrace, was a small site and not very productive. One house was tested, a midden, a cache pit, and two fireplaces were excavated, and the site was mapped. Site 39SL17 contained a large ceremonial house and six smaller depressions on the high terrace. Three houses were tested, two cache pits, a fireplace, and a test pit were excavated, and the site was mapped. Site 39SL1G was com- posed of three shallow house depressions and several other irregular depressions situated on the high terrace. Two houses were tested, a cache pit and a fireplace were excavated, and the site was mapped. This was a small and miproductive site. Site 39SL14 contained two house depressions on the high terrace adjacent to Site 39SL13. Both houses were tested, a midden was excavated, and the site was mapped. Site 39SL34, a single house depression on the high terrace and a part of the 39SL13 and 14 complex, was not productive. The house was tested, a midden was excavated, and the site was mapped. Ten sites, newly located in 1959, consisted of only minor-find spots of specimens, random fire hearths, cache pits, and similar isolated features. None is of enough significance to warrant further attention, though surface collections and/or minor tests were made in all of them. These sites are 39SL47, 48, 49, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, and 57. Likewise, site 39SL25 was examined and written oil as of no further interest. Thus by the end of the season tests had been made to pro- vide architectural details for 36 circular earth lodges in 17 separate sites and excavations had been conducted in 25 middens, 33 cache pits, 16 fireplaces, and 26 random test pits. One burial was recovered and 19 sites were mapped. Houses were consistently tested by excavat- ing a trapezoidal area on the depression edge with the base of the trapezoid (10-25 feet wide) just outside the house ring and the smaller base (5-10 feet) near the center. This gave maximal coverage of the house periphery. In many cases these tests were extended to the central fireplace, and where the wall post pattern seemed unsatisfac- tory the outer edge of the trapezoid was extended. The McNutt party completed its season's work on August 29, after 8i/^ weeks in the field. The fourth Kiver Basin Surveys party for the 1959 season was directed by Dr. Alfred "W. Bowers. This crew of five began intensive excavations at the Anton Rygh site (39CA4), in Campbell County, South Dakota, on July 13, and continuing the investigations that were SECRETARY'S REPORT 65 carried on by Dr. Bowers during the previous two summers. The objective for this final season was the excavation of portions of the early, long- rectangular house component that underlay at least thi'ee later occupations of circular earth-lodge villages. This objective was only partially achieved. Portions of a rectangular house wall were uncovered, and a substantial series of early ceramic types of the Thomas Riggs-Huff sequence was collected. In addition to this, a major contribution to an understanding of this type of prehistoric site was made in the excavation of a sequence of fortifications and defensive structures especially equipped with bastions and "strong points." Two distinctive fortification systems separated by 4 to 5 feet of fill were identified. The upper one is associated with late Alaska material and represents one style of fortification in use in earliest historic times. The lower system is associated with the Thomas Riggs-Lower Fort Yates material of the rectangular house period of seven or eight centuries ago. The Bowers party completed its season's work on August 22, after six weeks in the field. Two Missouri Basin Project field parties were in operation for brief periods during the winter months. In response to notification by the area engineer at Gavins Point Dam that an archeological site was being destroyed by wave action at Lewis and Clark Lake, Robert W. Neuman visited the site in company with Corps of Engineers person- nel during the period December 2-5. Brief testing of the Miller Creek site (25KX15) demonstrated that it was a campsite of the period prior to the sedentary earth-lodge villages in the area and may be of considerable significance when excavated later in conjunction with XJroposed bank stabilization work by the Corps of Engineers, The fine cooperation of the Corps of Engineers staff was most helpful in this project. In addition to work at the ]\Iiller Creek site, Neuman visited a burial-mound group near JNIitchell, S. Dak., where unauthor- ized digging had been reported, and found that one of the mounds had been destroyed. The landowner agreed to allow no further imauthor- ized excavation there. The trip was completed with a brief survey of the construction activities at the Big Bend Dam. The second wintertime field party in the Missouri Basin also went to the Miller Creek site (25KX15). This was a cooperative project between the River Basin Surveys, the University of Nebraska Labora- tory of Anthropology, and tlie Corps of Engineers, U.S. Army, at the Gavins Point Dam. The area engineer advised that bank-stabilization work would begin in the area of this site the week of February 15. During the period February 12-20, Robert W. Neuman, of the River Basin Surveys staff, and Thomas A. Witty, of the University of Nebraska Laboratory of Anthropology, excavated a portion of the site. They were assisted by the area engineer, the reservoir naturalist, 66 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1960 and the reservoir manager of the Gavins Point Dam. The Laboratory of Anthropology provided a part of the field expenses. This is another example of the outstandingly fine cooperation between various Federal and State agencies in the Inter- Agency Archeological Salvage Pro- gram. The Miller Creek site, on the right bank of Miller Creek at its confluence with the Missouri River in Knox County, Nebraska, is a prehistoric Indian campsite exposed at a depth of from 3 to 6 feet below the surface. Test trenches revealed a moderate quantity of arti- facts including chopping tools, projectile points with and without side notches, and a few pottery fragments. The material relates the site to the "Woodland cultures. In addition, a day was spent at a site on the South Dakota side of Lewis and Clark Lake, collecting some deeply buried bison bones that appear to be of an extinct species. The 1960 summer field season in the Missouri Basin began in the Big Bend Reservoir area on June 8. Dr. Warren W. Caldwell and the party under his direction, prevented by heavy rains and unexpected high water from reaching its primary objective of sites in Old Arm- strong County, Oahe Reservoir, temporarily transferred their activ- ities for the early part of the season to the area about the mouth of Medicine Creek in Lyman Coimty, South Dakota. By the end of the fiscal year Caldwell had a crew of eight men, and excavations were well underway at Sites 39LIM222 and 39LM224, two small earth-lodge vil- lages briefly tested in the 1959 season. The second Missouri Basin Project field party starting work in June was under the direction of Robert "W. Neimian. It was engaged in the excavation of a burial-mound site near the North Dakota-South Dakota State line, in the Oahe Reservoir area, Sioux County, North Dakota. This site, the Boundary Mound group (32SI1), consists of several burial mounds of the Plains "Woodland period, and is one of the extensive series of "V\^oodland mound sites in the Oahe Reservoir area scheduled for excavation by this party during the 19G0 season. By the end of the year excavations at this site were nearly completed. Mr. Neuman and his crew of six men had cut extensive trenches across three of the mounds and had dug several test pits in other parts of the site. The third Missouri Basin Project field party at work in June was a crew of three under the direction of G. Hubert Smith in the Oahe Reservoir area. This historic-sites party planned to begin digging on June 23 at the site of old Fort Bennett (39ST26) in Stanley County, South Dakota. When it reached that location, however, it found most of it already under water and a change was necessary. The party moved to Fort Sully (39SL45) in Sully County on the other side of the Missouri River, and on June 28 started an investigation of the foundations and refuse dumps at that historic military post in order to SECRETARY'S REPORT 67 verify several ground plans of the post and gather a representative series of specimen materials of the period. Cooperating institutions working in the Missouri Basin at the begin- ning of the fiscal year included a party from the University of Kansas, directed by Dr. Carlyle S. Smith, excavating at the Strieker Village site (39LM1) in the Big Bend Reservoir and t-esting two nearby sites, 39L1VI226 and 390I227; a joint party from the University of North Dakota and the State Historical Society of North Dakota, directed by Dr. James H. Howard, excavating at the Huil site (32M011) in the Oahe Eeservoir area ; and two parties from the University of ^Missouri, directed by Dr. Carl F. Chapman, excavating a series of sites in the Pomme de Terre Reservoir area and making preliminary surveys in the Kassinger Bluff Reservoir area of west-central Missouri. In July and August, a party from the Kansas State Historical Society, under the direction of Roscoe Wilmeth, excavated one site and tested three others in the Pomona Reservoir area of east-central Kansas. In October a party from the University of South Dakota, directed by William Buckles, excavated a cemetery area at the Four Bears site (39DW2) in the Oahe Reservoir area of South Dakota. In April the Nebraska State Historical Society had a party, under the direction of Marvin F. Kivett, surveying sites in the Red Willow Reservoir in southwestern Nebraska. At the end of the fiscal year, four cooperating institutions had archeological crews in the field: The State Histor- ical Society of North Dakota, at the Huff site (32M011) in the Oahe Reservoir area, under the direction of W. Raymond Wood ; the Uni- versity of Nebraska, at the Leavenworth site (39C09) in the Oahe Reservoir area, directed by Dr. Preston Holder; the University of Missouri, surveying and testing sites in the Kassinger Bluff Reservoir area, directed by Dr. Carl F. Chapman ; and the Kansas State Histor- ical Society, in the Wilson Reservoir area in central Kansas, directed by Roscoe Wilmeth. All these parties were operating through agree- ments with the National Park Service and were cooperating in the Smithsonian Institution research program. During the time that the archeologists were not in the field, they were engaged in analysis of their materials and in laboratory and library research. They also prepared manuscripts of technical, scientific reports and wrote articles and papers of a more popular nature. The Missouri Basin Chronology Program, started by the staff archeologists of the Missouri Basin Project in Januaiy of 1958, and described in the Seventy-sixth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology, continued to operate throughout the year. The program has continued to have marked success and the entire group of 34 individuals and 20 research institutions has continued to co- 68 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1960 operate in assembling data, under the general direction of the Missouri Basin Project staff members. Studies by Dr. Paul B. Sears of Yale University on the pollen samples collected last year have continued to progress, and at least one profile is being verified. Another group of 11 radioactive carbon-14 samples has been submitted to the Uni- versity of Michigan Memorial Phoenix Laboratory, under the direc- tion of Professor II. R. Crane, to add to the 11 dates already obtained on carbon-14 specimens. Plans for f uU-time participation by a dendro- chronologist made little headway during the year but look promising for next year. On a part-time basis, the dendrochronologist, Harry E. Weakley, continued to prepare materials for study. Alan H. Coogan, though no longer a member of the River Basin Surveys staff, continued his studies of the geologic-climatic aspects of the chronology of the terrace-situated sites in the Fort Thompson region of the Big Bend Reservoir area. The 11 radiocarbon dates already obtained in the Missouri Basin Chronology Program are given in their relative temporal positions in table 1. The dendroclironological material is illustrated in plate 2, figure 1, and the soil profile of a site near Fort Thompson, S. Dak., is shown in plate 2, figure 2, to illustrate the geologic-climatic approach to the dating of archeological materials. The laboratory and office staff spent its full effort during the year in processing specimen materials for study, photographing and il- lustrating specimens, preparing specimen records, and typing, filing, and illustrating records and manuscript materials. The accomplish- ments of the laboratory and office staff are listed in tables 2 and 3. As of June 30, 1960, the Missouri Basin Project laboratory had cataloged 1,219,563 specimens from 2,097 numbered sites and 58 col- lections not assigned site numbers in the 14 years of its operation. It may be noted in table 2 that considerable material from the Chatta- hoochee River Basin was processed in the Missouri Basin Project laboratory this year. Tliis reflects collaboration for expediency and economy between the archeological investigations outside the Mis- souri River Basin and the facilities for work within the Missouri Basin and constitutes a major contribution to the effectiveness of the salvage program in the southeastern United States. In addition to the processing of these specimens, the Missouri Basin Project facilities were utilized for a portion of the year in the preparation of maps, illustrations, and the three mimeographed appraisal reports resulting from the work in the Chattahoochee Basin last year. Without the aid of the Missouri Basin Project facilities these researches would not have progressed so rapidly. Tlie Missouri Basin Project staff archeologists and archeologists of the National Park Service and the cooperating State agencies working in the Missouri Basin met on July 24 in a roundtable field conference SECRETARY'S REPORT 69 u CQ u -n k, — a — ki o — ki 1 -or— ki — -o ki c t, 1 rt s> >-, a a rH a 41 a • - -»-( 4 o o t3 -H 41 O o rH 4) tfi 1 ■ 4) /^ O 4) O -M >, O >. -M >, » ^ >i Oj >> a >i k. 4) >. c n >> l< J3 M rH 4) U *J u 1 H-» » .H 5) a 91 01 3 o -H rH rt O o O k, o rH ^ x: 3 O ■rt 01 o - O a o ■r< c a o rH a o o •o m ^ c o o in •M 3 o bO >-' f M > d C>) a a N k. (Sh o CS > a X: rH ol C C>) c o -+I •U •• -+1 c VI 3 -+1 c -H w •• -t-l a X "*.' >. 01 a w 4) 3 3 tX) >. 3 O k. fc. o C Q •- c a ■ Q 4-> CS Ih VI Q c « .D Q c c a C Q (J (S -H k, 41 01 *J 01 CO +J ■ 00 4) C CO -14) 00 o k, 01 00 VI CJ rH 4) CD a o ■rt Oi n c e (.an i^ o (« 4> i^ N *j 01 j: in u . 4) 4) in a 01 in a 01 a rH 82 0» a 3 • ^ 01 10 * gs 4) e 3 CO 3 3- t- < •«-( 4-1 o rt x: 3 a /-N a rH 41 © -M 0) •-! a c; .-» 41 g •M O « a -1 tm jD 3 £ k, *j 01 c:: k, bC 3 to -c kl o x: kl bil ki >_< «) 1 u ■H 3 k, O -rl E k, 01 3 E s: a iH -H a ^ t. » i> > K •• O t< O k. O -1 rH n 4> ki (h 8< JS § - 4) cj > l< rH k. VI - ■rH J= rH L, 4) - rH • s: ■M a > -3 Ul rt U - a *- Q, o •- C rH VI a VI x: x> ■H C y-N +J 4-> -0 ■*-( 13 4>|-^ a ■a -0 3 a> -a v-- k. 13 4-> rH > ■r^ k. r-H k, 3 (U -n 5o 01 01 --I « c ^ ja rH ■Pi E rH C to 01 -W rH a C •-! ■H VI H •rl 01 . T3 Ul 41 M •^^ "E a: tn o t 41 o ^ a :i c S 0) o n l>1 01 41 *J a 01 o ki •- Ul ki *j W > >H e ES 01 3 k< m o o r k, CO c 4-> kl 4) a O 3 41 :: a 41 o 4) •H a ▼H 3 bi: O • rt >^ 4< J= rH a a Ih a C 4) ■M O 01 4) hj 01 x: 41 a: 3 (1> bO X /-s 0) Ih a rH 4) o O a >s +j x: o >. ■H x: 4) >. -H 2 a CO O •o >. u JO >. -H Ih >^ 4) o («. CJ CO « E c bD b: kl -H w - w J 4> 41 c o kl o - ^^ 3 O c 01 >. •• o (« o -( be O ki ki ■H O c: a rH U in c tc in c ■H O o 01 "3 s o CO C X -o o CJ >, 4) C^ f-> Hh CS 4) c >. . ■H C a-+| g U 41 T3|-i C C -+| T3 3 C O » tn c a <-> o c: T3 -H O 4> rH C rH O 0) > (9 S o 3 ID C 01 o c 3 e 01 O a c c 01 O 4) 3 a •<:■ £ 4J g :ii CO Ki 3 O k. a i- i> a <§ §. rH k. VI es O O M W (0 t- qI U J2 00 o ^ CJ CO CO *» rH ca u O rH " rH rH 2 2 5T 2 (Jl 00 o o -OJl-- ^1 ■ - ol- — _ ^-Q 1 . 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VI +J a 41 o • l< in CJ ca > • o ,-i Com o >. 41 CS •H a « n ca c r-< m rH e b. ^ «, a +J rH ki -H C a 4> O -H -♦1 u £ a « -H 4) « o <-• 3 01 fl VI a a -^1 « j: c: a i< o a a 01 kl 01 r> ^ c :i§ fc> o o 3 =t a o *' 4-» 3 E s r) M B 3 a CO t~ >. d in ■H «) rH O 3 M -H hH O a «J ;: ^ a jl: VI (O >; » CO ■O N VI j: m ■m in CJ X 0] 00 M > CJ to U X O CO ^ « J3 o -o 41 70 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1960 Table 2. — Specimens processed July 1, 1969- June SO, 1960 Reservoir Number of sites Catalog num- bers assigned Number of speciniens processed MISSOURI BASIN PROJECT Big Bend 17 1 50 3 404 7 5,098 9 1,357 Fort Randall 20 Oahe_. 43, 437 Sites not in reservoirs 26 Collections not assigned site numbers 71 3 5,518 5 44, 840 5 Total 5,523 44, 845 CHATTAHOOCHEE BASIN Columbia Dam 33 282 2 4,053 5, 170 128 83 30, 161 Walter F. George 65, 779 Oliver 2,968 Sites not in reservoirs 1,254 Collections not assigned site numbers 328 1 9,434 29 100, 162 138 Total __. 9,463 100, 300 Combined totals 399 14, 986 145, 145 Table 3. — Record material processed July 1, 1959-June SO, 1960 MISSOURI BASIN PROJECT Reflex copies of records 10, 299 Photographic negatives made 1,781 Photographic prints made 9, 945 Photographic prints mounted and filed 3, 654 Transparencies mounted in glass Kodachrome pictures taken Plate layouts made for manuscripts- Cartographic tracings and draftings- Artifacts sketched Plates lettered Profiles drawn 283 454 69 50 44 37 36 SECRETARY'S REPORT 71 in Pierre, S. Dak. Tliis 16i/2th Plains Conference, now a re^lar sum- mer event, and an adjunct of the annual autumnal Plains Conferences, was devoted to discussions of basic technical problems arising from current field activities. They centered principally around the se- quences of cultural groupings in this area and the interrelationships between the several cultural manifestations represented by excavated materials. During the Thanksgiving weekend, members of the staff participated in the 17th Plains Conference for Archeology, held in Lincoln. On April 23, members of tlie staff took part in the Seven- tieth Annual Meeting of the Nebraska Academy of Sciences, held also in Lincoln. Dr. Robert L. Stephenson, chief, devoted considerable time to managing the office and laboratory in Lincoln and preparing plans and budgets for the 1960 field season. He also worked on a summary report of the Missouri Basin Salvage Program for the calendar years 1952-60, and on a complete revision of a large technical monograph, "The Accokeek Creek Site : A Middle Atlantic Seaboard Culture Se- quence," previously accepted as his doctoral dissertation at the Uni- versity of Michigan. He began preparation of an article, "Adminis- tration in Anthropology," and started preliminary analysis of the materials he recovered from the excavations at the Sully site (39SL4) in the Oahe Reservoir in 1956 to 1958. He also continued writing on the manuscript reporting the "Archeological Investigations in the Whitney RevServoir, Texas." Throughout the year he served as chair- man of the Missouri Basin Chronology Program. In July he served as chairman of the 16%th Plains Conference held in Pierre, S. Dak., and during the Thanksgiving weekend served as general chairman for the I7th Plains Conference held in Lincoln, Nebr. He was a panel dis- cussant for "The Texas Panhandle and the Southwest" in the session on "Plains-Southwest Relationships," and presented an exhibit of "The History of the Plains Conference" at that meeting. On Janu- ary 20 and 21, he participated in the annual meeting of the Committee for the Recovery of Archeological Remains, held in Washington, D.C., and on April 23, he attended the Seventieth Annual Meeting of the Nebraska Academy of Sciences in Lincoln, presenting a paper on "A Ceramic Dichotomy" which was published in abstract in the Proceed- ings of the Nebraska Academy of Sciences. During the year he pre- pared a book review of "The Cougar Mountain Cave," by John Cowles, for publication in American Antiquity.^ and a book review of "Arche- ology of Coastal North Carolina," by William Haag, for publication in Ethnoh/sfory. He also gave nine talks on various aspects of Mis- souri Basin Salvage Archeology at the regular meetings of local civic organizations and three talks to local school groups in Lincoln. On 579421 •— 61 6 72 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1960 March 1, he became assistant editor of Notes and News in the Plains Area^ for American Antiquity^ and on April 29, was appointed asso- ciate editor for the Plains Anthropologist. Taking annual leave, he served as part-time assistant professor of anthropology on the faculty of the Univei-sity of Nebraska during the second semester of the aca- demic year (February to June) and taught an upper-division course, "Prehistory of North America." Dr. Warren W. Caldwell, archeologist, when not in charge of field parties, devoted most of his time to analyses of specimen materials he had recovered from salvage excavations in previous years. He cora- ])leted preliminary analysis of the ceramics and certain other artifacts from the Black Partizan site (39LM218) which he excavated in the Big Bend Reservoir in 1958. He reanalyzed the artifacts and data from the Hickey Brothers site (39LM4), excavated by Bernard Golden of the Missouri Basin Project staff in 1958, and in collabora- tion with Lee G. Madison and Bernard Golden completed the final manuscript, including figures and illustrations, "Archeological In- vestigations at the Hickey Brothers Site (39LM4), Big Bend Reser- voir, South Dakota." He reanalyzed the artifacts and stratigraphic data from the Wakemap Mound site (45KL26), and prepared intro- ductory chapters for the final report on the excavations there; com- pleted the final revision of the report, "Archeological Investigations in the Hell's Canyon Area, Snake River, Oregon and Idaho"; revised and completed the manuscripts and illustrations for a popular photo- graphic booklet, "Lewis and Clark Lake," which was published by the Corps of Engineers, U.S. Department of the Army, Omaha, Nebr., in Januaiy. In collaboration with Charles H. McNutt and G. Hubert Smith, ho contributed chapters to, edited, and completed final revision of a similar popular booklet, "Fort Randall Reservoir." The latter was submitted to the Corps of Engineers in Omaha for publication. He revised three manuscripts of short articles pertaining to firearms in the PLiins: "Preliminary' Notes on Fragments of Firearms and Related Objects from Fort Atkinson, 1820-1827," "Firearms and Related Materials from Fort Pierre II (39ST217), Oahe Reservoir, South Dakota," and "Comments on tlie 'English Pattern' Trade Rifle." They were submitted for publication in the Missouri Arche- ologist. Other manuscripts and publications completed by him this year were: "The Bhick Partizan Site, A Preliminary Anaylsis," accepted for publication in the Plains Anthropologist ; review of "Stone Age on the Columbia," by Emory Strong, accepted for pub- lication in Archeology ; review of "Archeological Explorations in Central and South Idaho, 1958," by Earl H. Swanson, Jr., Donald R. Tuohy, and Alan Bryan, ac book reviews, 1 bibliography, 4 notes, In Memoriam. (Smithsonian Institution Publication 4381.) (203 pp., 137 collotype pis., text illustrations.) Medieval Near Eastern ceramics in the Freer Gallery of Art. by Richard Etting- hausen. Illus. cover, 7 pp. text and 31 pp. with 40 illus. (Smithsonian Institution Publication 4420.) Occasional Papers, Vol. 3, No. 2: Calligraphers and Painters, by V. Minorsky, 1959. (Smithsonian Institution Publication 4339.) (223 pp., 8 collotype pis.) Ilolnsat: Paintings and drawings in the Freer Gallery of Art, by Harold P. Stern, Illus. cover, 11 pp. text and 25 pp. with 36 Illus. (Smithsonian Institution Publication 4419.) Papers by staff members appeared in publications as follows : CAHnx, JA^[ES F. Chinese paintings, xi-xiv centuries. New York, Crown Pub- lishers, 1960. 40 pp. illus., 27 pis. (part col.) (Art of the East library.) . A rejected portrait by Lo P'ing; pictorial footnote to Waley's Yiian Alei. Asia Major, n. s., vol. 7. pp. 32-39. 3 pis., 1959. . Pveview of "Mindai no kaiga," by Yonezawa Yoshiho Tokyo, Mayu- yama Ryusendo, 1956. Revue MhUographique fie sinologlque, vol. 2, no. 345, 19.56. . Review of "Ru Kan no sakuhiu ni tsuite," by Rdtani Kenyfi. Buvka, vol, 20, pp. 234-247, 1956. Revue MhliograpJiique de sinologiqtie. vol. 2, no. 342, 1956. Review of "The tao of painting," by Sze Mai-mai. 2 vols.. New York, Pantheon Books, 1958. Revue MMiograpliique de sinologique. vol. 2, no. 346, 1956. ETTiNGnAusr;>% RicnARD. Abbasside art: Mural painting; miniatures; dec- orative arts (pottery, glass and rock crystals, woodv.-ork, textiles). En- cyclopedia of tvorld art, New York, McGraw-Hill Book Co., vol. 1, cols. 10- 15, pis. 4-1.3, 1950. . 'Abdu 'S-Samad, or Hvaga, 'Abdu 'f^nmad. Encyclopedin of irorld art. New York, McGraw-Hill Book Co., vol. 1, cols. 1.5-19, pis. 14-17, 1959. . Bibliography of the writings of J. V. S. Wilkinson. Ars Orientalis, vol. 3, pp. 259-202, 1959. . Bihzad, Kamal al-Din. Encyclopedia of Islam. 2d ed., Leiden, E. J. Brill; London, Luzac & Co., vol. 1, fasc. 19, pp. 1211-1214, pis. xxxiii-xxxvi, 1959. 110 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1960 Ettinghausen, Richard. The Bustan manuscript of Sultan Nasir Shah Khalji. Marg., vol. 12, No. 3, pp. 42-43, illus., June 1959. . Les elements decoratifs turcs dcs objets en or et en argent. Papers premier congrhs international des arts turcs ..* (University d' Ankara), p. 89, 1959. . Further comments on the Wade Cup. Ars Orientalis, vol. 3, pp. 197- 200, pi., 1959. . Near Eastern book covers and their influence on European binding: a report on the exhibition of "History and Bookbinding," at the Baltimore Museum of Art, 1957-58. Ars Orientalis, vol. 3, pp. 113-131, pis., 1959. . New light on early animal carpets. In Aus der Welt der islamischen Kunst: Festschrift JUr Ernst Kuhnel. Berlin,' pp. 93-116, 1959. . On some Mongol miniatures. Kunst des Orients, vol. 3, pp. 44-65, illus., 1959. . Tadhlilb (Illumination). Urdu encyclopedia of Islam, Lahore, vol. 1, 12 pp., 28 figs., 1959. . TajIId (Bookbinding). Urdu encyclopedia of Islain, Lahore, vol. 1, 13 pp., 18 pis., 1959. . Un tissu de la premiere 6poque Ottomane. Papers premier cotigr^s international des arts turcs . . . (University d' Ankara), pp. 87-8S, 1959. . Review of "Iran; Persian miniatures — Imperial Library," compiled by UNESCO, Greenwich, Conn., New York Graphic Society, 1956. Ars Orien- talis, vol. 3, pp. 217-220, 1959, . Review of "Islamic art and archaeology. A register of work published in the year 1954," by J. D. Pearson and D. S. Rice, Cambridge, Heffor & Sons, 1956. Ars Orientalis, vol. 3, pp. 215-216, 1959. . Review of "Islamic pottery from the ninth to the fourteenth centuries A.D. in the collection of Sir Eldred Hitchcock . . .," London, Faber & Faber, 105G. Ars Orien talis, vol. 3, pp. 216-217, 1959. Gettens, Rutiiekford J. The Freer Gallery Laboratory for technical studies in Oriental art and archaeology. Studies in Conservation, vol. 4, pp. 140-145, illus., 1959. . Review of "Studies in ancient technology," vol. 5, by R. J. Forbes, Lei- den, E. J. Brill, 1957. American Journal of Archaeology, vol. 63, p. 285, 1959. Pope, John A. Review of "Chinese celadon wares," by G. St. G. M. Gompertz, Loudon, Faber & Faber, 1958. Artibus Asiae, vol. 21, pp. 290-295, 1958. . An early Ming porcelain in Muslim style. In Aus der Welt der isla-^ mischen Kunst; Festschrift fUr Ernst Kiihnel . . . Berliu, Gebr. Mann, 1959, pp. 357-375, 9 figs., 14 pis. Stebn, Habold p. [Arranging and cataloging the Ilauge collection for] Jap- anese art in America : prehistory — A.I). 1900. Scrlpps College art galleries. April 19-May 15, 1900, Pomona, Calif., Day Printing Corporation, 30 pp., 34 pis., 1960. . Japan's earliest ceramics on tour. Museum News, vol. 38, no. 5, pp. 26-29, illus., Jan. 1960. . Masterpieces of Asian art in American collections . . . (Korean sec- tion) as shown in Asia House, January-February, 1960. New York, Car- negie Press, Inc., 64 pp., illus., 19G0. . One hundred ob.lccts of Asian art from the Avery Brundage collection (at the) M. H. De Young Memorial Museum, San Francisco, May 10 to June 12, 1960. Korean and Japanese Sections. San Francisco, H. S. Crock- er Co., 122 pp., cover Illus., front., pis., 1960. Secretary's Report I'lhd -s% Plate 5 'KV %>'- < '^^-a:,^ ;^*' .^' SECRETARY'S REPORT 111 Steen, Hakold p. Treasures of Japan; Seattle Art Museum, Juue 25 through August 21, 1U60. Seattle, the Museum, 19G0. . Review of "Hokusai ; paintings, drawings and woodcuts," by J. Hillier, London & New York, Phaidon Press, 1957. Journal of Asian Studies, vol. 19, pp. 87-88, 1959. . Introduction to : Figure prints of old Japan, a pictorial pageant of actors & courtesans of the eighteenth century reproduced from the prints in the collection of Marjorie & Edwin Grabhorn . . . San Francisco, The Book Club of Canada, 1959. UsiLTON, Bertha M. Compiled Index to Far Eastern Ceramic Bulletin, 1949- 58, 8 pp., issued as separate for the bulletin, Oct. 1959. Wenley, Aechibali) Gibson. A parallel between Far Eastern and Persian paint- ing. In Aus dcr Welt der islamischen Kunst; Festtschrift fiir Ernst Kiihnel . . . Berlin, Gebr. Mann, 1959, pp. 350-356, 4 pis. PHOTOGRAPHIC LABORATORY AND SALES DESK The photograpliic laboratory made 6,943 items during the year as follows: 4,816 prints, 567 negatives, 1,383 color slides, 160 black-and- white slides, and 17 color film sheets. In all, 3,225 slides were lent during the year. BUILDING AND GROUNDS The exterior walls appear to be sound and in good condition. The bronze doorways and area work surrounding the court were refinished under contract. The wooden flagpole was replaced with an aluminum one. The structural steel in the attic was cleaned of rust and spotted with aluminum paint, pending the time when the attic can be com- pletely repainted. The cleaning of the limestone of the first floor was continued and is now about 75 percent complete. The walls in galleries IX, X, and XI were removed and new plaster walls installed. The plaster was then covered with a vinyl resin coated fabric, resulting in a marked improvement. The auditorium was redecorated and new floor covering installed. All corridors and storage rooms in the basement were painted. The north wall of the south corridor leading to the auditoriiun was rebuilt. The shelving in the stone storage room was removed and new metal shelving ordered for this area. Two hand-rails were installed inside the north side of the building leading to both sides of the gallery corridors. In the courtyard replacements were made in the two azalea beds on the south side, and 14 yards of zoysia grass were replanted on that side of the building. The plantings around the fountain made excellent showings. Vinca has been planted for the coming summer season and appears to be doing well. 579421—61 10 112 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1960 ATTENDANCE The Gallery was open to the public from 9 to 4:30 every day except Cliristmas Day. The total number of visitors to come in the main entrance was 120,077. The highest monthly attendance was in August, 16,183. There were 2,682 visitors who came to the Gallery offices for various purposes — for general information, to submit objects for examination, to consult staff members, to take photographs or sketch in the galleries, to use the library, to examine objects in storage, etc. AUDITORIUM The series of illustrated lectures was continued as follows : 1959 October 20. Robert T, Paine, Museum of Fine Ajts, Boston, "Japanese Prints of Beauties of the Three Cities." Attendance, 188. November 10. Prof. Harald Ingholt, Yale University, "Buddhist Art of Gaudhara, Native and Foreign Influences." Attendance, 152. 1960 January 13. Prof, W. Norman Brown, University of Pennsylvania, "Vasanta Vilasa, an Illustrated Spring Poem in Old Gu- jarati." Attendance, 85. February 9. Dr. Sherman E. Lee, Cleveland Museum of Art, "Llaag Ch'ing-piao : Silent Collector, Eloquent Collection." At- tendance, 159. March 8. Prof. S. Howard Hansford, University of London, "Some Problems of Chinese Jades and Bronzes." Attendance, 132. April 12. Prof. George H. Forsyth, Jr., University of Michigan, "By- zantine Art at tlie Monastery of St. Catherine on Mt. Sinai." Attendance, 234. On May 3 ceremonies were held in the Freer Auditorium for the second presentation of the Charles Lang Freer Medal to the Near Eastern scholar. Prof. Ernst Kiihnel of Berlin, Germany, "for dis- tinguished contribution to the knowledge and understanding of Oriental civilizations as reflected in their arts." On the platform were Minister Franz Krapf, representing the Ambassador of Ger- many, His Excellency the Ambassador of Iran, Ardeshir Zahedi, in honor of the IVth International Congress of Iranian Art and Archae- ology meeting in Washington, Dr. Richard Ettinghausen represent- ing the Freer Galley of Art, and Dr. Leonard Carmichael, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, who made the presentation. Professor Kiihnel responded with an address on the growth of mterest in collections of Near Eastern art. This was followed by a reception in Gallery XVII. Attendance, 325. SECRETARY'S REPORT 113 Eight outside organizations used the auditorium as follows; 1959 September 17. October 29. November 17, 18. December 15. 1960 January 18. January 21. January 25, 26. February 18. March 17. April 21. May 2. May 19. May 23. Daughters of the American Revolution special regents' meeting. Attendance, 272. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Food and Drug Division meeting. Attendance, 76. Department of Agriculture, Federal Extension Service, meetings. Attendance, 117 and 75. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Food and Drug Division meeting. Attendance 25. Department of Agriculture, REA conference. Attendance, 118. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Micro- biology seminar. Attendance, .56. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Food and Drug Division meetings. Attendance, 290 and 169. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Food and Drug Division meeting. Attendance, 72. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Food and Drug Division meeting. Attendance, 72. Department of Agriculture. Food and Drug Division meeting. Attendance, 68. The IVth International Congress of Iranian Art and Arch- aeology, all-day meeting. Attendance, 128. Department of Agriculture. Food and Drug Division of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, meeting. Attendance, 138. Indian Embassy, Educational Department, presented Mrs. Sarada Arundel in Indian dances with a talk given by Mrs. Rukmini Devi. Attendance, 284. STAFF ACTIVITIES The work of the staff members was devoted to the study of new accessions, objects contemplated for purchase, and objects submitted for examination, as well as to individual research projects in the fields represented by the collections of Chinese, Japanese, Persian, Arabic, and Indian materials. Reports, oral and written, and exclusive of those made by the technical laboratory (listed below), were made on 10,379 objects as follows : For private individuals, 7,004 ; for dealers, 1,484; for other museums, 1,891. In all, 1,021 photographs were examined, and 321 Oriental language inscriptions were translated for outside individuals and institutions. By request, 24 groups totaling 258 persons met in the exhibition galleries for docent service by staff members. Three groups totaling 34 persons were given docent service by staff members in the storage rooms. Among the visitors were 95 distinguished foreign scholars or persons holding official positions in their own countries who came here under 114 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 19 60 the auspices of the State Department to study museum administration and practices in this country. During the year the teclmical laboratory carried on the following activities : Objects examined by various methods, including microscopic and microchemical examination, X-ray diffraction and spectrochemical analysis, examination in ultraviolet light, and specific gravity determination : Freer objects examined 86 Outside objects examined 135 The following projects were undertaken by the laboratory during the year : 1. For a period of four weeks in September, Miss Elisabeth West worked as a guest in the Chemistry Department, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, Long Island, N.Y. Her project of spectrochemical analysis of some 30 inscribed ceremonial bronzes from the Freer collection, begun in 195S, was brought to completion. 2. Continued editorship of IIC Abstracts (Abstracts of the Technical Litera- ture on Archaeology and the Fine Arts) published by the International Institute for Conservation of Museum Objects, London. 3. Continued systematic collection of data on the technology of ancient copper and bronze in the Far East. 4. Continued studies on the corrosion products of ancient metal objects. By invitation the following lectures were given outside the Gallery by staff members (illustrated unless otherwise noted) : 1959 July 14. Mr. Gettens, at the International Institute for Conservation of Historic and Artistic Works, United Kingdom Group at the Institute for Archaeology, London, England, "Pre- liminary Technical Studies on Ancient Bronze Ceremonial Vessels." Attendance, 30. October 20. Dr. Ettinghausen, at Congress of Turkish Art in Ankara, Turkey. "The Anatolian Mosque" and "The Problems of Working with Subjects on Turkish Art." October 23. Dr. Ettinghausen, at Ankara, Turkey (Ankara University), to the First International Congress on Turkish Art, "An Early Ottoman Textile" and "Turkish Elements in the Decorative Arts." Attendance, 180 and 200, respectively. October 25. Dr. Ettinghausen, at banquet given by Governor and Mayor of Konya, to the First International Congress of Turkish Art, "The Miracle of Konya." Attendance, 180. November 4. Dr. Pope, at Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass., "Chi- nese Export Porcelains." Attendance, I.IO. November 6. Dr. Pope, at Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass., "Angkor." Attendance, 250. November 6. Dr. Ettinghausen, at University of Istanbul, Turkey, "Some Problems of Early Turkish Art." Attendance, 45. November 9. Dr. Pope, J. B. Speed Art Museum, Louisville, Ky., "Chi- nese Export Porcelains." Attendance, 85. December 11. Dr. Cahill, at Cleveland Museum of Art, Cleveland, Ohio, "Great Chinese Paintings in Far Eastern Collections." Attendance, 55. SECRETARY'S REPORT 115 I960 January 11. January 13. January 14. March 10. March 30. May 9. May 19. May 24. May 25. May 25. June 15. Members as follows: 1959 June 14- August 12. Dr. Stern, in Richmond, Va., to the Council, Virginia Museum of Fine Arts, "Survey of Japanese Art." Attendance, 250. Dr. Pope, at Cosmos Club, Washington, D.C., to Cultural Affairs Officers, "Charles Lang Freer and the Freer Gallery of Art." Attendance, 70. Dr. Cahill, at Smithsonian Institution Regents' Annual Din- ner, Washington, D.C., "Ku-kung (Palace) Museum in Formosa." Attendance, 26. Dr. Cahill, at Princeton University, Princeton, N.J., "On the Dating and Attribution of Some Early Chinese Land- scapes." Attendance, 150. Dr. Cahill, at American University, "The Haiku in Japanese Poetry." Attendance, 20. Dr. Ettinghausen, at Walters Art Gallery, Baltimore, Md., "Special Exhibition of Persian Objects Arranged for the Fourth International Congress of I'ersian Art." Attend- ance, 107. Dr. Ettinghausen, at University of Pennsylvania, Philadel- phia, "Interrelationship of Near Eastern and Indian Paint- ings during the Middle Ages." Attendance, 3S. Mr. Gettens, in Boston, Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum, "Notes on Museum Laboratories Visited in England and on the Continent, Summer 1959." Attendance, 50. Mr. Gettens, in Boston, at the International Council of Mu- seums luncheon, "Status and Program of the Rome Center." Attendance, 150. Mr. Gettens, in Boston, to the American Working Party of the lie Abstracts, "Report on IIC Abstracts." Attend- ance, 15. Mr. Gettens, in Chicago, to the IMicroscopy Symposium for 1960 (held by McCrone Associates), "Microscope Exami- nation of Art Objects." Attendance, 150. of the staff traveled outside Wasliin^ton on official business Mr. Gettens began a 2-month trip to Europe in June, visit- ing museums in Glasgovp and Edinburgh. He attended, in Copenhagen, the Joint Session of the I COM Commission for the care of paintings. This meeting was attended by about 60 delegates from museum laboratories from all over the world. A highlight of the session was a visit to the Carbon-14 Laboratory at Copenhagen University. He attended meetings of the International Council of Museums in Stockholm and visited several of the museums there, paying special attention to the world-famed collections of Oriental art and tlie newly established laboratory in the Museum and Office of Royal Antiquities. He viewed Far Eastern antiquities in the private collection of His Ma- jesty King Gustav VI, at the Royal Palace. He went with the Conference to Drottningholiu Palace where all mem- bers had been invited to meet the King, see the fine collec- 116 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1960 1959 July 23-25. September 21- December 11. October 13-14. October 16-17. November 13-17. December 2. December 15-21. 1960 January 5-7. January 6-7. January 11. tion of bronzes, tapestries, Royal portraits and objects of art, and to attend at the Drottniugholm Palace Theatre, a special performance of the eighteenth-century comic opera "II Maestro." Visits were made by the group to Skokloster Castle and to Uppsala. In London Mr. Gettens spent several days visiting laboratories and collections In the Courtauld Institute of Art, the National Gallery, the British Museum, the Victoria and Albert Museum, and the Tate Gallery. Of special interest was a visit to Appleby in Westmorland to discuss business matters with the printer of IIC Abstracts. Other visits included: Brussels, the world-famed Institut du Patrimoine Artistique de Belgique; in Zurich, the newly established Laboratory of the Swiss National Museum ; in Naples, the Museo e Gal- lerie Nazionali di Capodimonte and the ruins of Pompeii. Return was via London where more museum visits and professional contacts were made. Dr. Stern, in Chicago, examined the following objects for possible inclusion in the Asia Society Museum Inaugural Show : 56 Japanese and Korean objects at the Chicago Art Institute; 30 Chinese and Japanese objects belonging to a private collection; 100 Chinese and Korean objects in the Junkung Collection; 24 Chinese jades and paintings that belong to the Chicago Museum of Natural History; and 16 Japanese and Chinese objects belonging to dealers. Dr. Ettinghausen, in Europe and the Near East, attended the First International Congress on Turkish Art in An- kara, Turkey, visited Israel, England, France, Germany, Austria, Italy, Greece, Ireland, Switzerland, Holland, and Belgium. While in Berlin, he attended the Festschrift presentation in honor of Prof. Ernst Kiihnel. Dr. Stern, in Toronto, Canada, examined objects at the Royal Ontario Museum, Hart House, Lee Collection, Uni- versity of Toronto, and the Canadian Customs Service. Dr. Stern, in New York City, examined objects at Metro- politan Museum, New York Public Library, and saw the Bonnier Exhibition. Mr. Gettens examined 15 Egyptian objects (bronzes) in Walters Art Gallery, Baltimore, Maryland ; in New York attended a meeting of Advisory Council for a Center for Teaching and Research in Conservation (Institute of Fine Arts, New York University). Mr. Gettens, in New York City, examined bronze objects at Metropolitan Museum of Art. Dr. Stern, in New York City, examined objects in museums, galleries, and private collections. Dr. Stern examined objects at dealers in New York City. Dr. Stern, in New York City, attended an exhibition of Japanese art at Asia House, sponsored by Japan Society. Dr. Ettinghausen, in Baltimore, visited the Persian Art Exhibition at Walters Art Gallery. SECRETARY'S REPORT 117 I960 January 15-28. February 21- March 23. March 5-8. March 11. March 28. April 22-30. May 9. May 10-19. May 25. May 25-27. Jane 13-17. June 3. Dr. Cahill, in Geneva, Switzerland, worked on book with Albert Skira and members of his staff. He visited : Far Eastern Exhibitions in the Rijksmuseum in Amsterdam and in The Hague; in London, Far Eastern exhibits in the British Museum, at the Percival David Foundation ; and in New York examined Chinese paintings in the hands of several dealers. Dr. Stern, in Seattle, San Francisco, Santa Barbara, Los Angeles, and Chicago, examined objects at dealers and in private collections. Mr. Gettens, in New York City, attended meetings of Stand- ing Committee for Artists' Oil Paints and examined objects at dealers. Dr. Cahill attended Seminar at Princeton University on Yiian paintings. Attendance 7. Dr. Pope went to Taiwan where he served as chairman of the American Selection Committee for the Exhibition of Chinese Art Treasures, to be held in five American museums in 19G1-62. Dr. Ettinghauseu, in New York, Philadelphia, and Balti- more, attended the IVth International Congress of Iranian Art and Archaeology as a member and delegate. Presided at the session held at the Donnell Library Center in New York City ; also gave the eulogy on L. A. Mayer. Ex- amined objects at dealers, in museums and private collections. Miss West and Mr. Gettens, in Boston, attended the meet- ings of the International Institute for Conservation of Historic and Artistic Works held in the Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum and the Fogg Art Museum. Dr. Pope, in Manila, studied the collection of Chinese and Siamese ceramics excavated in the Philippines by Prof. H. Ottey Beyer. He also visited the excavation sites at Calatagan. Miss West and Mr. Gettens, in Boston, attended meetings of the American Working Party of IIC Abstracts held in the Statler Hotel. Miss West served as co-chairman of the Program Committee for the meeting; visited the plant of Baird-Atomie, Inc. and the Laboratory of the Museum of Fine Arts. Mr. Gettens examined objects at the Museum of Fine Arts. Miss West and Mr. Gettens, in Boston, attended the meet- ings of the American Association of Museums. Mr. Gettens, in Chicago, attended the Microscopy Symposium, 19G0, held by McCrone Associates; also examined objects in a private collection. Dr. Ettinghausen, at the Textile Museum, examined (as member of the Acquisition Committee) 40 Peruvian objects, 5 Mexican objects, 1 Turkoman, and 30 Indian printed cottons. 118 AKNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1960 As in former years, members of the staff undertook a variety of peripheral duties outside the Gallery, served on committees, held honorary posts, and received recognition. The Freer Gallery of Art again participated in the "Wellesley- Vassar Washington Summer Intern Program designed for students interested in obtaining a rounded experience in the general operation and purposes of a gallery, and in broadening familiarity with the field of art in general. Through our error, the 1958-59 report should have named Miss Margo Parsons and Miss Elizabeth Chanler as in- terns for 1958. Miss Nancy Orbison, Vassar College, Poughkeepsie, served as our volunteer for the program during this smnmer. Respectfully submitted. A. G. Wenley, Director. Dr. Leonard Carmichael, Secretary^ Smithsonian Institution. Report on the National Air Museum Sib: I have the honor to submit the following report on the ac- tivities of tiie National Air Museum for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1960 : Substantial progress was made on preliminary studies for the new National Air Museum building. The architectural firm of Harbeson, Hough, Livingston & Larson assisted in this work and presented several possible building concepts. One of these has been selected for further consideration when planning funds for the building are made available. Among the many significant accessions received during the year were: A full-scale replica of the Atlas rocket and nose cone; three original Farre paintings; the C. G. B. Stuart collection of aviation photographs and books; the Lindbergh Locklieed "Sirius" airplane; a bronze portrait of Gen. James H. Doolittle; the Eyan X-13 "Verti- jet"; original letter carried as the first space mail; and the "Able- Baker" space capsules. The Aircraft Building was completely renovated and a new ex- hibit was mstalled, which was not only an improvement over the former one but provided much valuable experience in planning the exliibit for the proposed new Air Museum building. The building was opened to the public on April 15. By Jmie 30, 292,406 visitors to this exhibit had been counted. A number of boxed aircraft were moved from indoor to outdoor storage, with suitable protection, to provide indoor storage space for about 30 historic airplanes which have been held for some years for the Air Museum by the United States Navy. Information service again increased in scope and volume during the year. This included the furnishing of teclmical, historical, and biographical information pertaining to the development of air and space flight to Government agencies, schools, research workers, authors, students, and the public. Many useful acquisitions to the Museum's library, reference, and photographic files were received, including collections of 30,000 aviation photograplis and 1,400 volumes of early aviation history. The curatorial staff during the year completed the research for and the writing of approximately 800 labels for the new Aircraft Build- ing exhibit. 679421—61 11 119 120 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1960 ADVISORY BOARD A meeting of the Advisory Board was held on December 16, 1959. The Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution welcomed the new mem- bers of the Board, Maj. Gen. Brooke C. Allen, U.S.A.F., and Rear Adm. P. D. Stroop, U.S.N. The Board expressed approval of changing the name of the National Air Museum to the National Air and Space Museum, at an appropriate time, to reflect the widening responsi- bility of the Museum in the field of historic space flight. The Board also discussed generally the requirements for the new Air Museum building. SPECIAL EVENTS A number of presentation ceremonies of note were held during the year. Among these were the presentation of a sculpture of James H. Doolittle by H. S. M. Burns, president of the Shell Oil Co.; the C. G. B. Stuart collection of aviation books by Richard Fell, president of the National Aviation Club; and an Atlas rocket and nose cone by the Secretary of the Air Force, Dudley C. Sharp. The Atlas ceremony was combined with the Langley Medal award, post- humously, to Dr. Robert H. Goddard. Senator Clinton P. Ander- son, regent, presented the medal to ^Irs. Goddard, and Congressman Overton Brooks, Smithsonian regent, accepted the Atlas for the museum. A six weeks' course in air and space science, for graduate credit, was held at the Air Musemn in cooperation with American University. Funds from the Link Foundation provided scholarships for the seven mathematics and science teachers who completed the course. The Director attended the annual conference of the National Avia- tion Education Council at Denver, Colo., and addressed a panel on the "International and Economic Aspects of the Space Age." He also addressed the annual alumni meeting of the Academy of Aeronautics in New York. Paul E. Garber, head curator and historian of the Air Museum, was honored at the Denver Conference of the National Aviation Education Council as the recipient of the National Frank G. Brewer Trophy. This award for outstanding service in aviation education was made by Jacqueline Cochran, president of the National Aeronautic Association. Mr. Garber represented the Museum at a number of a\dation meet- ings during the year, including the Air Force Historical Association and the Honors Night banquet of the American Helicopter Society. He delivered 30 lectures during the year, including one at the U.S. Air Force Academy. SECRETARY'S REPORT 121 IMPROVEMENTS IN EXHIBITS The historic "Vin Fiz," "Winnie Mae," and "XIl-4" airplanes were completely restored and preserved, the "Phantom" and "Bell X-1" were renovated, and all have been placed on exhibition in the Aircraft Building. Also, a dozen famous engines and many other historic objects were restored, preserved, and placed on display. New methods of display and protection are being tested in this new exhibit. REPAIR, PRESERVATION, AND RESTORATION The facilities for accomplishing proper restoration and preservation of the Museum's aeronautical collections were improved considerably during the year. Utilizing one of the storage buildings at Silver Hill, Md., the Museum can now undertake the extensive program of restoration and preservation in preparation for the new building. ASSISTANCE TO GOVERNMENT DEPARTMENTS The Air Museum continued its service to various Government de- partments during the year. Among these were the Department of Justice (in patent litigation), the Voice of America, the Department of the Air Force, and the Department of the Navy. PUBLIC INFORMATION SERVICES Through its information service, the Museum has handled thousands of requests during the year for technical, historical, and biographical information from publishers, authors, schools, colleges, research workers, students, and teachers. The historical research required for this service requires a substantial part of the time of the curatorial staff and assistants. REFERENCE MATERIAL AND ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Many useful and valuable additions to the reference files, photo- graphic files, and library of the Museum were received during the year. These records and documents are helpful to the Museum staff in providing information, authenticating data, and for historical research. The cooperation of the following persons and organizations in pro- viding this material is sincerely appreciated : Aero Design & Engineeeinq Co., Bethany, Okla. : A series of 8-x-lO" photo- graphs and brochures pertaining to the Aero Commander. AiB FoBCE, Depabtment of the, Aik Force Museum, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio: Transfer of 15 reels of varying lengths of film on early flight; Technical Reports (Army), four boxes of duplicate reports. AiB Photographic and Charting Service, USAF, Pentagon, Washington, D.O. : 40 photographs of different aviation subjects. 122 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1960 A nt Photogbaphio Squadbon, 1350th, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio: 16-mm. film copy of Fokker T-2 coast-to-coast flight, 1923. Andrews, John H., Paradise, Pa.: "The Wise Story." Items: 3 newspapers, souvenir booklet, and first-day cover commemorating 100th anniversary of John Wise's first airmail flight from Lafayette, Ind. Abmt Baixistio Missile Agency, Huntsville, Ala.: Motion-picture film "Nose Cone Voyagers." Akmy Ordnance Command, Pentagon, Washington, D.C. : Motion-picture films "La\mch of the Jupiter C Explorer" and "Guided Missiles." AuTONETics Motion Pictures, through A. V. Mattucci: Motion-picture film "luertical Navigation." Aviation History Publications, Concord, Calif.: Book "U.S. Marine Corps Aircraft 1914-1959," William T. Larkins. Beech Aircraft Corp., Wichita, Kans. : News release and 6 photographs with description of the aircrafts — 1960 models. Bell, David R., Caldwell, N.J. : Postal card sent from Europe by Orville Wright to Miss Hoffman. Bell Aircraft, Col. S. G. McLennan, Washington, D.C. : 2 photographs of "X-9 Strike" missile being launched from B-29. Brainard, Henry A., Akron, Ohio: Documents relatiug to Professor Langley. Breese, Sydney S., Sarasota, Fla. : Letter received Sept. 17, from Sydney S. Ereese giving history of Breese Penguin plus an 8-x-lO" drawing by a French Ace of the type of taxi trainer used in lYance during WWI, plus a 2-x-4" photograph of a biplane built by Breese in 1916 in which the first Lawrence air-cooled aluminum engine was tested. Brown, Jamob Kenilewiqle S., VSAF, Bedford, Mass. : Tapestry of Lindbergh and "Spirit of St. Louis." Canadaib Ltd., Montreal, Canada: 3-vlew drawings of Canadair-Convair 640, Canadair CL-28, and Canadair CL^44. Cessna Aircraft Co., Wichita, Kans. : 3 S-x-lO" prints of Cessna 310 being used for business flying. Clabk, Miss Rosamond, Baltimore, Md. : Booklet, Harvard-Boston Aero Meet, Aug. 2G-Sept. 4, 1911, official program. Cooke, David C, Valley Stream, L.I., N.Y. : Book, "Transport Planes that made History," by David Cooke. Deleor, Frank J., Sikorsky Aircraft, Stratford, Conn. : 3 photographs of Sikorsky helicopters used in Korea and 1 photograph each of 1909 and 1910 helicopters. DoAK Aircraft Co., Torrence, Calif.: Photographs of Doak VZ-4DA VTOL aircraft. Douglas Aircraft, Washington, D.C. : 7 photographs of a Douglas DC-3. Douglas, George F., Engineering Norair, Hawthorne, Calif.: 3 1 :72-scal8 engineering drawing of Northrop XP56 and 1 1 20 : 20 "blow up." Dove, Roger, Sikorsky Aircraft Division, Stratford, Conn.: 14 8-x-lO" photo- graphs, 1 advertisement proof, 2 lO-x-12" photos. Emme, Eugene, Historian, NASA : Book, "The Impact of Air Power," Eiome. Fajjj^ Nelson, Convaib General Offices, San Diego, Calif.: Photographs of the B-24, Ref. Material on B-24, 800 and 600. Fiat Aviation Division, Tarine, Italy : 90 photographs of Flat aircraft. FoGEL, John Martin, Baltimore, Md. : Motion-picture film made by Martin Aircraft Co. of 7 models borrowed from the National Air Museum. SECRETARY'S REPORT 123 Franklin Institute, Thlladelphia, Pa.: Photographs of Amelia Earhart'a Lockheed Vega (one is model of plane) ; 12 sound films "Simalo Streams" (part of a series of 13 half -hour programs for Educational TV given by Dr. Lippisch of Collins Radio). Gibson, R. J., Qantas Empibe Airways, Ltd., Sydney, Australia, also F. R. MoRiiisoN : "The Aeronautical Work of Lawrence Hargrave," by T. C. Rough- ley, B.Sc, Bulletin 19, Technological Museum, Sydney, Australia. Grant, Dr. Robert, Jr., San Diego, Calif. : Negatives of photographs taken by N. E. Brown of Lincoln Beachey around 1908-10 at Long Beach, Calif. Griffon, Milt S., TnoMr.soN Products Division., Cleveland, Ohio : The Thomp- son Products HubbeU lithographs for 1941 captioned "Dawn of Wings." One set of twelve. Grumman Aircraft Corp., Bethpage, L.I., N.Y. : Drawings, photographs, and specifications of Grumman Aircraft from the 1930's to the present time. Hajime Takogi, Editor, Tokyo, Jai)an : 14 photographs of Japanese aircraft. Hall, George H., North American Aviation, International Airport, Los An- geles, Calif. : 1 booklet on the "X-15" and 20 pictures of the "X-15" and her mission. Hall, Comdb. G. M., USN, Office of Information, Washington, D.C. : 2 8-x-lO" glossy prints of each of the following: U.S.S. Ticonderoga (CV-14) and other ships of the fighting fleet in Ulithi Atoll (12-8-44). Platform of U.S.S. Pennsylvavia (BB-SS) completed for Ely's experiment January 1911; Ely taking off Pennsylvania (1-18-11), Ely landing on Pennsylvania, front and side view (1-18-11). USN Neg. 294131, 65G93, 418709. Henry, Lois, Henry Publications, New York, N.Y. : 2 photographs : Winners of the 1959 Powder Puff Derby, Sikorsky A/O Ser. No. X802W, operated by Kane Laboratories, Inc. Herford, Pegg, Los Angeles Dept. of Airports, Los Angeles, Calif.: Photo- graphs of Los Angeles International Airport — (1) 1929, (2) 1959, showing development. Howard, Jean Ross, Assistant to Director, Helicopter Council: Reference material on heliports. Immensoluck, W. T., Ryan Aeronautical Co., San Diego, Calif. : Log books (copies) of the Curtiss Navy A-1 and B-1 (AH-4) aircraft. JuERGENS, Philii' L., Burbauk, CaUf . : 1 3-view drawing 16-X-23" of Lockheed pings and other memorabilia pertaining to and associated with the life of XC-35, 5 photographs on 3-view drawing of XC-35, 5 photographs on 3-view drawing of the Lockheed Vega ; 7 photographs of "X-7" Lockheed missile. JupTNEB, Joseph P., Orange, Calif. : 12 photographs of aircraft Key, William G., William G. Key Associates, Washington, D.C: "Contro- versy In the Making," by William G, Key (Pegasus Supplement). Knabenshue, Mrs. Roy A.: Collection of books, blueprints, photographs, clip- pings and other memorabilia pertaining to and associated with the life of Roy A. Knabenshue. Library op Congress, Exchange and Gift Division: Photographs from Grover C. Loening papers. Lighten, R. L., Bell Helicopter Corp., Fort Worth, Tex. : Bell XV-3 Con- vertplane folder, 8-x-lO" photograpli in color. Link, Edwin A., Binghamton, N.Y. : Miscellaneous photographic prints. LooKWELL, Warren T., Hiller Helicopter, Washington, D.C. : Photograph and reference material on the X-18 tilt-wing research aircraft. LoNoo, Robert R., Tyler, Tex. : "Stepchild Pilot," by Joseph Doerfllnger. 124 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1960 Lufthansa, Deutsche, Koln, Germany: Photographs of Fokker F-2 and F-3 aircraft as used by Lufthansa. Marquktte County Historical Society, Marquette, Mich. : Collection of early airline labels, baggage stickers and tags. (From Dr. John N. Lowe collection.) Martin Company, Baltimore, Md. : Motion-picture film, "Project Vanguard," color-sound 28 minutes. Massin, Alex, Toronto, Ontario, Canada: 12 commemorative covers (envelopes), 5 aviation magazines (1928-1929.) Mattes, M. A., Standard Oil Co. of California, San Francisco, Calif.: 8 8*^- x-14" originals from which the following Standard Oil Co. of California "Plane Fax" advertisements show uses of aircraft were derived ; "Specialists in Rugged Flying," "Flying the Yukon Air Trials for 'Black Gold,* " "Deliver- ing Groceries to the Sierra Crest," "1,134 Hours between Majors — No Repairs," "Planting Trout by Air into Cascade Lakes," "Breaking Trail By Air for Alaska 'Train,' " "Flying Life-or-Death Missions in the High Sierra," and "300-mile Flight Wins $1,000,000 Job." McDonnell Aircraft Corp., St. Louis, Mo. : 5 photographs of the XV-1 heli- copter ; motion-picture film, "The Phantom," color-sound 15 minutes. McLennan, Col. S. G., Washington, D.C. : 2 photographs of "X-9 Strike" missile being launched from B-29. Melotti, G., of Fiat, Aviation Di\t:sion, Torino, Italy : 11 blueprints (2 sets) and 13 photographs (7" x 9i^") pertaining to the AVS-5 airplane. Morgan, Len, Dallas, Texas: Books, "Sound Barrier," "Flying Lovers," "Every- man to His Post," "Trans Pacific Flight," "Wingsover the World," "Fighter Pilot," "Air Officers Guide," Squadron Admin., "Air Warfare" ; Popular Flying magazines. Morris, Keith, Sports Illustrated: Famed color photograph of Istel making parachute jump. Mueller, Miss Ester, Air Force Museum : 332 photographs, 20 negatives. Navy, Department of the, Washington, D.C, Bureau of Aeronautics : 3-view and other drawings of 8 naval airplanes: Consolidated NY-1, Boeing PB-2, Curtiss R3C-1, and R3C-2, Curtiss F6C-3, Martin MS-1, Huff Daland HN-2, Flias EM-2; 15 drawings of early naval aircraft, Loeing-3. Bureau of Naval Weapons : 2 copies each log books for Navy Curtiss Flying Boat No. G-1 and Wright Hydroaeroplane No. B-2. North American Aviation, Autonetics Division, Downey, Calif. : Motion-picture film, "Inertical Navigation." O'Dea, W. T., Department of AsajONAUTics, Science Museum, London, England: 17 GV2-X-9V2" drawings, 21 6i4-x-9i^" photographs, Vickers Vimy cockpit and controls, 2 2%-x^i4" drawings of Vickers Vimy cockpit. O'Hear, W. M., United Airlines, Chicago, 111. : 4 photographs of United Airlines maintenance base at San Francisco, Calif. Parrish, Wayne W., Washington, D.C. : 3 bound volumes of American Aviation and 1 American Aviation Daily. Post Office Department : Copies of texts pertaining to the first balloon airmail in the U.S.A. authorized by the Post Office Department and carried in the John Wise balloon "Jupiter" in 1859. Rice, C. E., Odell, Nebr. : 11 newspaper clippings and 1 reprint of Chicago Sunday Tribune of May 22, 1927. Robinson, Bill, Cessna Aircraft Co., Wichita, Kans. : 3 8-x-lO" prints of Cessna 310 being used for business flying. Sheiaffer, Mrs. Daniel, Wayne, Pa. : Photographs, framed pictures, books, pamphlets, and other graphic or text items. SECRETARY'S REPORT 125 SiKOBSKY AiBCBAFT, Stratford, Conn.: 2 photographs of C. L, Morris, pilot of Sikorsky XR^ ; photographs of Sikorsky's S-38, S-39, Martin Johnson's "Osa's Ark", and "Spirit of South Africa"; 2 photographs 8" x 10" of Sikorsky HSS-2 helicopter. Standabd On. Co., San Francisco, Calif. : 7 proofs of "Plane Fax" advertisements showing uses of aircraft. Stephenson, Robebt L., Lincoln, Nebr. : Photographs and negatives of the Nathaniel Dewell collection. Steickler, Mervin K., Dibectob of Aviation Education, Ellington Air Force Base, Texas : Complete set of textbooks used in C.A.P. cadet training program. Strock, Robert D., Wen-Mac Corp., Los Angeles, Calif. : Control line model of P-38 having a 2-foot wingspan, and equipped with 2 gasoline engines. Strohmeier, William D., Davis, Parsons & STBonMEJER, Inc., New York, N.Y. : 4 brochures illustrated in color, describing the Piper line of aircraft, and 13 8-x-lO" glossy photographs. Stuart, C. G. B., Hastings, Sussex, England : Air Britain Digest, unbound copies dating back to earliest issues. Sullivan, Wendell R., Beech Aibceaft Corp., Wichita, Kans. : 11 photographs and 6 3- view drawings of 1960 aircraft. Syverson, J. M., North American Aviation, Inc., Downey, Calif. : 9 views (photographs) of the North American "X-10," and a news release. ToDA, Mannosake, Tokyo, Japan : 25 photographs of aircraft. Tburo Chamber of Commerce, North Truro, Mass. : Scrapbook of tests of German gliders made at Corn Hill, Mass., 1928. United Airlines, Chicago, 111. : 4 8-x-lO" photographs, 2 of the Link Electronic Jet Engine Simulator (first used by United Airlines), and 2 of the United Airlines DC-8 Jet Mainliner; 2 photographs of Laird Swallow aircraft. U.S. Naval Photographic Center, Naval Air Station, Anacostia, D.C. : 12 photo- graphs of A/C carriers operations, 2 photographs of balloon carriers opera- tions, 1 photograph of R4D operating office. U.S. Naval Research Laboratory, Washington, D.C. : Photographs of Vanguard, chart of course and related photographs. Vadney, H. a., Department of the Navy, Washington, D.C. : Drawings of early naval aircraft. Waters, Lt. Col. James I., USAF, Washington, D.C: 14 8-x-lO" glossy photo- graphs of parachutes being used to lower cargo and to reduce landing roll of aircraft. Wells, ITred T., Pratt & Whitney Aircraft, East Hartford, Conn. : Pratt & Whitney JT3D Turbo Fan data, S-x-lO" photogi-aph (cutaway view), Pratt & Whitney booklet, "It's a Smaller World," Aviation Week reprint of January 26, 1959. Wetting, Dr. Olab, Olso, Norway : Photographs of Norge and Triggvl Gran and Roald Amundsen. ACCESSIONS Additions to the National Aeronautical Collections received and recorded during the fiscal year 1960 totaled 287 specimens in 90 separate accessions, as listed below. Those from the Government departments are entered as transfers; others were received as gifts. Aebo Design & Engineering Co., Bethany, Okla. : Scale model of "Aero Com- mander" L-26, with color scheme the same as that of President Eisenhower's personal plane. (N.A.M. 1104.) 126 ANNTJAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1960 AiB Force, Depabtment of the, Washington, D.C., through Rtait AKEOWAtmoAi- Co.: Ryan X-13 "Vortljet" airplane, first Jet-powered vertical takeoff air- craft to demonstrate transition from horizontal to vertical flight and return to horizontal flight configuration. (N.A.M, 1067.) Dayton Pbocueement District, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio: 1 experimental twin-jet turboprop engine, YT-40-A-6, complete with gear boxes, contrarotating propellers, and additional duplicate assemblies. (N.A.M. 1135.) 4th Weather Group, Sultland, Md. : Weather maps and charts used In briefing flight crew for Vice President Nixon's flight to Moscow, July 1959. (N.A.M. 10G6.) Air Force Museum, Wright- Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio: 25 aircraft engines (N.A.M. 1088), complete rocket assembly for V-2 German guided missile, including combustion chamber and propulsion unit (N.A.M. 1062), 9 turbojet and one turboprop engines (N.A.M. 1133). Air Force Museum, Fairborn, Mich. : Lockheed "Sirius" monoplane, NR-211, formerly owned and used by Charles A. and Anne Morrow Lindbergh in their historic trip to the Orient and for their Atlantic survey flights. (N.A.M. 1063.) Office of the Secretary, Washington, D.C. : A static test specimen of an Atlas ICBM, capable of intercontinental range and from which the first broadcast from space was made by President Eisenhower. It will be the vehicle used to launch the Mercury Man In a space capsule. (N.A.M. 1142.) Warner Robins Aib Foece Base, Georgia: Complete E-6 radar fire-control system as used on F-86's and F-94's. (N.A.M. 1112.) Park Ridge Depot, Illinois : Collection of World War II specimens collected by order of General H. H. Arnold, USAF (recorded iu National Air Museum Annual Report of 1949). (N.A.M. 1144.) Alexander, Roland K., Watervllet, N.Y. : Loan of 3 famous World War I combat aircraft models — the DeHavllland DH-4, Ansoldo SVA, and the Sop- with Triplane. ( N.A.M. 1131. ) Alexandeb, W. W., Grand Rapids, Mich. : Scale model of the Salmson 2-A2 reconnaissance bomber used by American Forces during World War I. The aircraft is of French design and construction. (N.A.M. 1119.) Amebican Helicopteb Society, Inc., New York, N.Y. : Feinberg INIemorial Award which is presented annually to "the outstanding helicopter pilot of the year." (N.A.M. 1129.) Army, Department of the, B.\llibtic Missile Agency, Huntsville, Ala. : 2 com- plete life-sustaining space capsules and cradles used in the "Able-Baker" ex- periment (N.A.M. 1122.) Ordnance, Washington, D.C: Set of 11 1:24 scale models of U.S. Army rocket missiles. (N.A.M. 1134.) Beachey, Hilleby, San Carlos, Calif. : Silver loving cup trophy won by Lincoln Beachey at the International Aviation Meet held In Chicago, August 12-20, 191L (N.A.M. 1136.) Bell Aircraft Corporation, Buffalo, N.Y. : 1 :16 scale model of the Bell X-14 jet-powered VTOL. (N.A.M. 1117.) Bell Helicopter Corporation, Fort Worth, Tex. : Model of the Bell XV-3 Con- vertlplane which embodies the best features of the helicopter and flxed-wing aircraft. (N.A.M. 1097.) Blackall, Frederick S., Jr., Woonsocket, R.I. : Lougheed engine of very unique design combining features of both the 2- and 4-cycle operating principles In an 8-cycle air-cooled V-type engine, designed by Victor Lougheed. (N.A.M. 1110.) Boeing Airplane Co., Seattle, Wash. : 1 :72 scale model of the Boeing B-29 "Enola Gay" which dropped the first atomic bomb on August 6, 1945 (N.A.M. 1107.) ; model of the Boeing Model 707 aircraft scaled 1:48, representing the first Jet transport of U.S. manufacture to enter airline service (N.A.M. 1060). SECRETARY'S REPORT 127 Braniff Intebnationajl Aieways, Dallas, Tex. : 14 equiscale models of aircraft used by Braniff Airways sluce the beginning of tbeir operation (N.A.M. 1140) ; 1 :48 scale model of the Douglas DC-7C airliner, designed for long-range and over-ocean flying (N.A.M. 1081). Bright, Mb. and Mrs. Rot D., Washington, D.C. : 1 complete dinner-service set- ting from the Graf Zeppelin, including 10 pieces of sterling silverware and 10 pieces of Bavarian china. (N.A.M. 1064.) Bronte, E. B., Honolulu, Hawaii : Flyer's helmet worn by donor in flight from Oakland, Calif., to Molokui, Hawaii, July 14-15, 1927. (N.A.M. 1123.) Capita!. Airlines, Washington, D.C. : 1 :48 scale model of Capital Airlines' "Vis- count," first operational turboprop airliner in the U.S. (N.A.M. 1095.) Carruthebs, Mrs. John, Pasadena, Calif. : Large leather- and cloth-bound scrap- book of early aviation items on ballooning, mostly 18th and early 19th century. (N.A.M. 1130.) Cessna Aircraft Co., Wichita, Kans. : Scale model of Cessna L-19 Army liaison plane. (N.A.M. 1076.) Cochran, Jacqueline, New York, N.Y. : 2 trophies marking some of the high points in the distinguished career of this outstanding aviatrix — one from the Air Force Association (1948) for distinguished service; the other, the Vincent Bendix Trophy for the speed race from the West Coast to Cleveland (1938). (N.A.M. 1094.) CoNVAiR, Division of General Dynamics Corporation, San Diego, Calif. : 1 :48 scale model of the all-jet Convair 880 airliner. (N.A.M. 1109.) Cromwell, James H. R., New York, N.Y. : Portraits in oil of World War I aviators, Maj. Lufbery, Capt. Duellin, and Lt. Flauhaire, painted by the eminent French artist, Heni'i Farre. (N.A.M. 1059.) Davis, Mrs. Arlene, Cleveland, Ohio : 2 aviation trophies from donor, 1 a losing cup given by the National Intercollegiate Flying Association and the other the Cessna Trophy for first arrival In the All- Women Transcontinental Air Race, 1951. (N.A.M. 1093.) Demick, H. E., Washington, D.C: Italian altimeter with special barometric- pressure and temperature feed-in corrective attachments. (N.A.M. 1137.) Doolittle, Geh^. James H., Los Angeles, Calif. : 59 medals, awards, certificates, membership cards, etc., from the personal collection of the donor. (N.A.M. 1082.) Douglas Aircraft Co., Inc., Washington, D.C: Model of the Douglas DC-8 turbojet-powered transport. (N.A.M. 1099.) Downing, Mrs. Frederick B., Kinderhook, N.Y. : Flight clothing, consisting of leather coat and 3 helmets worn by the late Rear Adm. J. Lansing Callan (died 1958), who learned to fly at the Glenn H. Curtiss School in 1911, com- manded Naval flight operations in Europe during World War I, served with distinction in World War II, and retired in 1948. (N.A.M. 1056.) Eoker, Herman A., Fort Lauderdale, Fla. : A "Kingston" carburetor from a Roberts' aviation engine, used by the donor in 1911 on his flying boat. (N.A,M. 1073.) EiCHNER, E. C, Clifton, N.J. : An X strut from girder of "Shenandoah" and a piece of fabric from gas cell. (N.A.M. 1065.) Fleming, William N., Passaic, N.J. : Model, 1 :16 size, of the Aerial Experiment Association (Curtiss) "June Bug," winner of the Scientific American Trophy July 12, 1908. (N.A.M. 1108.) French Embassy, Washington, D.C. : 9 French Government medals, duplicates of those awarded to members of the Lafayette EscadriUe. (N.A.M, 1111.) 128 ANlSnjAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1960 Gabbeb, Paul B., Washington, D.C. : 1910 edition of Trowbridge's narrative poem "Darius Green and His Flying Macliine" and 1874 edition of Jules Verne's prophetic science fiction "From the Earth to the Moon" (N.A.M. 1075) ; contemporary color print of Henson's "Ariel" shown taking off from tower on the plains of Hindustan (N.A.M. 1098) ; scale reproductions of 2 early aircraft devised by Sir George Cayley, his glider kite and his aerial top. (N.A.M. 1078.) Glenn L. Maetin Co., Baltimore, Md. : 2 1 : 48 scale models of the B57E and the B26 "Flak-Bait" (N.A.M. 1105) ; models of significant early Martin airplanes — the MB-1 bomber used during the Virginia Capes bombing tests and the Mail Express, a development of the bomber intended for carrying U.S. mail during the early part of the Air Mail Service. (N.A.M. 1138.) GoDDABD, Mes. Robeet, Worcester, Mass. : Loose-leaf albiuu of photographs of Dr. Robert Goddard and his experiments from 1915 to 1945. (N.A.M. 1072.) Good, Dr. Walter A. and William, Bethesda, Md. : A gasoline-engined radio- controlled model airplane designed, built, and flown by the donors. It is one of the first successful examples of this type of sport aircraft, and was winner of the radio-controlled flight events in the U.S. National Model Airplane meets for 1938, 1939, 1940, and 1947. (N.A.M. 1141. ) Goodyear Aircraft Corporation, Washington, D.O. : Model of Goodyear Airship 2PG-2W, cut away to show large radar antenna enclosed in the bag. (NA.M. 1070.) Hartwick, Herbert, Marietta, Ga. : Model of Curtiss JN-4D World War I train- ing plane. (N.A.M. 1103.) Hawker Aircraft Limited, Surrey, England : Model 1 : 10 size of the Hawker Hurricane fighter famous for its performance in World War II, particularly in the "Battle of Britain." (N.A.M. 1106.) Heineich, Albert S., Fort Ashby, Va. : Trophy awarded to donor by Municipal Engfineers of the City of New York for Aeroplane General Eflaciency Test (N.A.M. 1085.) HiLLER Aircraft Corporation, Palo Alto, Calif. : Scale model of the Hiller helicopter, Model 12E, with agricultural spray equipment manufactured by Agravenco. (N.A.M. 1125.) Institute of Aeronautical Sciences, New York, N.Y. : Group of specimens in- cluding 6 aircraft models — 1 of the "Akron" ; an aileron ; an Earhart loving cup; and 1 propeller. (N.A.M. 1118.) Istel, J. A., Orange, Mass. : "Skydiver" sport parachute designed and used by donor in several parachute jumping competitions, both national and inter- national. (N.A.M. 10G8.) Johnson, Harry, Julius, & Louis, Coral Gables, Fla. : Scale model of Johnson Monoplane (1911) which incorporated a number of unusual features; also a trophy cup awarded to the donors in 1912 by the Terre Haute Boosters. (N.A.M. 1057.) Latat, Felix, Plainfield, N.J. : Message pouch dropped by MaJ. H. A. Dargue at Tacopilla, Chile, during U.S. Army Pan American goodwill fiight around South America. (N.A.M. 1058.) Lockheed Aircraft Corporation, Burbank, Calif. : 5 models historically signifi- cant, designed and built by Lockheed. ( N.A.M. 1121. ) Medaris, Maj. Gen. J. B., Huntsville, Ala. : Original letter and envelope carried in the recovered nose cone on its historic flight, August 8, 1957. (N.A.M. 1090.) National Aviation Club, Washington, D.C. : Approximately 1,400 volumes of historically significant aviation books covering the field from the year 1700 to the present. (N.A.M. 1143.) SECRETARY'S REPORT 129 Navt, Depaetment of the, Washington, D.C. : Curtiss P^O fighter aircraft of World War II face (N.A.M. 1077). Bueeau of Ships, Washington, D.C: Dummy Regulus I missile (N.A.M. 1087) ; Upper Darby, Pa.: Allison YJ-71- A— 4 turbojet engine, one of the first of this series tested operationally (N.A.M. 1124). Bureau of Weapons, Washington, D.C: MacDonnell FH-1 "Phantom" carrier-based turbojet-powered single-seat carrier fighter (N.A.M. 1092) ; model of the USN airship "Akron" constructed 1 : 80 full size (N.A.M. 1139). Naval Air Materiel Center, Philadelphia, Pa.: Antiexposure suit, ejection seat catapult, lap belt, 2 regulators, helmet, pressure suit, and 2 wing structures (N.A.M. 1116). Technical Data Division, Washington, D.C: 2 arresting hooks from carrier-borne aircraft, one from an FSU Vought "Crusader" and the other from an F4D-I Douglas "Skyray" (N.A.M. 1080). Nevin, Robert S., Denver, Colo. : Model of a Bleriot "Penguin" monoplane trainer used during World War I for the training of pilots, including the members of the famed Lafayette Escadrille. (N.A.M. 1096.) Newcomb, Charles J., Trappe, Md. : Models of historically famous air vehicles, including the Fokker DR-1, Fokker T-2 (F-IV), and the balloons by Mont- golfier Brothers, Prof. Charles Wise, and John Wise. (N.A.M. 1126.) Newkirk, Thomas A., Urbana, 111. : Aircraft telegraph transmitting set and single-blade propeller. (N.A.M. 1069.) New Mexico National Guard, Albuquerque, N. Mex. : Japanese World War II airplane, Nakajima Ki 43-2 (Oscar II) Army fighter, a development of the famed Zero fighter. ( N.A.M. 1086. ) NoRD Aviation, France: Scale model of the Nord "Griffon II" aircraft used by Maj. Andre Turcat who became first pilot in the world to exceed mach 2 In a ramjet-powered aircraft, thus winning the Harmon Trophy for 1959. (N.A.M. 1083.) Page, George A., Jr., Reynoldsburg, Ohio : Model of Heinrich monoplane, winner of eflSclency test. Municipal Engineers of New York, November 7, 1914 ; also half blade from propeller of Curtiss H-16 "Big Fish." (N.A.M. 1071.) Pan American World Airways System, Inc., New York, N.Y. : 2 models of historically significant aircraft — The Fokker F-7/3M and the Consolidated "Commodore" Flying Boat. (N.A.M. 1128.) Portuguese Government: 1 : 16 scale model of "Santa Cruz" plane which made first flight across the South Atlantic in 1922, flown by Portuguese Navy pilots Cabral and Coutlnho. (N.A.M, 1113.) Prince, Frederick, H., Old Westbury, N.Y. : American flag given to the Lafayette Escadrille by President Wilson. (N.A.M. 1115.) Republic Aviation Corporation, Farmingdale, N.Y. : Model of the Republic F-105 "Thunderchief" fighter-bomber which has been described by the USAF as "The world's most powerful one-man airplane." (NA.M. 1074.) Ryan, J. J., c/o Eric Wood, New York, N.Y. : Fulton Airphibian Model FA-3, the first certificated vehicle to incorporate the desirable features of both the airplane and the automobile. (N.A.M. 1089.) Scarritt, Danifj,, Gainesville, Fla. : 1 black leather folder containing Pilot's Identification Card #10 and Transport Pilot Rating #10 Issued In 1927; Mechanic's Identification Card #10 and Mechanic's License #10 issued In 1927. (N.A.M. 1132.) Sheix Oil Co., New York, N.Y. : Less than life-size bronze bust of Gen. James H. Doolittle sculptured by Mme. Suzanne Silvercruys. (N.A.M. 1084.) Shoemaker, Peter, Baldwin, N.Y. : 1 : 16-sIze scale model of Heinrich Brothers' first airplane (1910), given by donor, builder of the model, and winner of a contest held among the students of Baldwin High School. (N.A.M. 1127.) 130 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1960 SiKOESKY AlECBAFT, DIVISION OF UNITED AlBCSAFT COEPOBATION, Stratford, Conn,: Model of the Sikorsky VS-300 helicopter, the first successful U.S.- built helicopter. ( N.A.M. 1101. ) Simmons, Mbs. Olivee, Denver, Colo.: Original letter from Oi-ville Wright (N.A.M. 1120.) Spacetronics, Inc., Washington, D.C. : Early experimental model of ground cushion vehicle capable of carrying one person. (N.A.M. 1102. ) Stuaet, C. G. B., Sussex, England: A collection of approximately 30,000 air- craft photographs covering in scope all the countries of the world in which aircraft are manufactured. (N.A.M. 1061.) Taylor, Mr. and Mrs. Reuben, Sb., El Paso, Tex. : Small American flag carried on the Wright Brothers' airplane of 1904 at Huffman's Prairie, near Dayton. (N.A.M. 1079.) Tracy, Daniel, Lakewood, Ohio : 3 1 : 16 scale models — a Curtiss R3C-1, a Nieu- port 11, and a Sopwith "Camel" — purchased from Daniel Tracy (N.A.M. 1100) ; 1 : 16 scale model of the Curtiss Navy Racer, the R2C-1, winner of the Pulitzer Trophy of 1928, also purchased (N.A.M. 1055). Yickers-Aemsteong, Limited, London, England: 1:16 scale model of the famous Supermariue "Spitfire," backbone of the Royal Air Force in the "Battle of Britain." (N.A.M. 1114.) Wen-Mao Cobpobation, Los Angeles, Calif. : Commercial plastic 1 : 12 scale model of Hiller "Flying Platform" with special paint job done at Wen-Mac plant. (N.A.M. 1091.) Respectfully submitted. Philip S. Hopkins, Director. Dr. Leonard Carmichael, Secretary^ Smithsonian Institution. Report on the National Zoological Park Sir : I have the honor to submit the following report on the activi- ties of the National Zoological Park for the fiscal year ended June 30,1960: GIFTS The past year was outstanding as far as gifts from foreign govern- ments were concerned. In November the French community of Afri- can Republics presented President Eisenliower with "Dzimbo," a baby African elephant, which arrived in Wasiiington after having been flown from the Brazzaville Zoo to the Vmcennes Zoo in Paris and then across the Atlantic. The formal presentation was made on the White House law^n on October 12 by Dr. Jean Einjard, associate director of the Vincennes Zoo. President Habib Bourguiba of Tunisia presented two of the rare Dorcas gazelles to Mrs. John Eisenhower when she accompanied the President on his tour of Europe and North Africa in 1959. Hav- ing successfully passed through the required quarantine in Europe and again in New Jersey, these beautiful little antelopes arrived at the National Zoological Park on June 80, 1960. The National Zoological Park has long been famous for breeding pygmy hippopotamuses. The sire, known as "Billy," died in October 1955, and efforts to replace him met with no success. It was therefore with particular appreciation that the Zoo accepted the offer of President William V. S. Tubman of Liberia to donate a male pygmy hippo of breeding age. Senior Keeper Charles W. Thomas was sent to Monrovia to accompany the animal on its journey to the States. The formal presentation of the hippo, named "Totota" after President Tubman's country estate, was made on February 5 by the Liberian Charge d'Affaires Francis A. Dennis and accepted on behalf of the Smithsonian Institution by Dr. Remington Kellogg. The arrival of an Indian rhinoceros in a zoo is always a very special event. Since the death of "Gunda" in January 1959, after nearly 20 years here, the National Zoological Park had been without an example of these great, armor-plated beasts. Early in 1959 the Forestry Service of Assam wrote to say that they had captured a rliiiioceros for the National Zoo and were presenting it with the understanding that the Zoo would furnish transportation. Tlie animal was young and barely weaned, and it was thought advisable to keep it in a 131 132 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1960 corral in Gahauti, where it lived for nearly a year. It was then brought by truck from Assam to the Alipore Zoo in Calcutta, and J. Lear Grimmer, Associate Director of the National Zoological Park, flew out to accompany it to Washington. He spent a month in India, supervising the crating of the rhinoceros and getting acquainted with it, even spending several nights in the Zoo, so that "Tarun" would be- come thoroughly accustomed to him. They arrived in Wasliington on May 25, and "Tarun" by that time tipped the scales at 2,000 pounds. In addition to the rhinoceros, the Seaboard and Western plane that flew it to Washington carried the following animals which Mr. Grimmer had acquired as gifts, purchases, or exchanges: 1 spotted leopard 31 lesser ring-necked parakeets 1 black leopard 5 darters or snake birds 5 lesser pandas 2 black-backed kallege pheasants 1 langur 12 emerald-winged tree doves 12 blossom-head parakeets 5 yellow monitors 2 gray hornbills 1 water monitor 2 Bhutan or gray peacock pheasants 2 pythons 10 cotton teals 5 wolf snakes 3 greater ring-necked parakeets The National Zoological Park acknowledges not only the generosity of the Forestry Service of Assam but also the cooperation of R. K. Lahiri, director of the Alipore Zoo, and Gordon Mattison, American consul general in Calcutta, both of whom were most helpful in mak- ing arrangements. Mrs. Grimmer, who accompanied her husband to India, was given a young leopard by Maj. Aubrey N. Weinman, director of the Zoo in Colombo, Ceylon, which she has recently presented to the National Zoo. Dr. Robert E. Kuntz, stationed in Taiwan, continued to send rare and interesting specimens. The Washington Post sent two newspaper carrier boys, winners of a "Junior Diplomat" contest, on a trip to Australia. While they were there, Sir Edward Hallstrom, president of the Taronga Park Trust, Sydney, gave them a pair of tree kangaroos for the National Zoological Park. The day after the kangaroos arrived in Washington, a very small young was noticed in the pouch. It is now half grown, and the trio make a most attractive exhibit. The U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey sent an expedition to little- known Swan Island, off the coast of Honduras, and collected for the National Zoological Park 7 Swan Island iguanas, 2 Nelson's Anolis, 3 Sceloporus spiny lizards, and a Nelson's gecko. Ralph S. Scott, Washington big-game hunter, captured a baby tiger while on a trip to India last year. A contest was held to name it (win- SECRETARY'S REPORT 133 ning entry: Mighty Mo), and it was exhibited in various branches of a restaurant chain before being formally presented to the Zoo by J. Willard I^Iarriott, Sr. Mr. Marriott also gave the Zoo its first audio device, a magnetic tape repeater sound system which at the press of a button recites the story of the young Bengal tiger. James D. Kennedy, American administration personnel adviser to the Indonesian National Police, stationed in Djakarta, Java, sent a fine young cassowary. He later secured another one for the Zoo as a gift from his friend Police Colonel Mohamad Jasin, chief of the Indo- nesian Police Mobile Brigade, who wished to express his appreciation for the training he had received at Quantico, Va. Both birds are im- mature and are valuable additions to the collection. Robert F. Kennedy gave a young female Californian sea-lion which had been sent to his children as a Christmas present and had been living in their swimming pool. The list of benefactors of the National Zoological Park is a long one, and the following record of gifts received during 1959-60 mentions only those of unusual interest : Berger, Paul, Berwyn Heights, Md., Javan macaque. Blackwelder, Frank, Washington, D.C., scarlet king snake. Brower, Charles F., Falls Church, Va., white-breasted toucan. Call, Carl J., Silver Spring, Md., pectoral sandpiper, Cobb, Dr. S., Boston, Mass., 4 albatrosses. Crawford, Cecil C, Washington, D.C., Lady Amherst's pheasant. Davis, M/Sgt. Dale E., Alhambra, Calif., tovi parakeet. DePrato, Mario, Langley Park, Md., narrow-mouthed toad, 23 tree frogs (3 spe- cies of Hyla), king snake, scarlet snake, 2 cottonmouth moccasins, red-bellied water snake, 4 black racers, 7 brown water snakes, 2 southern banded water .snakes, mud snake, 4 green snakes, chicken snake {Elaphe), 2 chicken snakes (Dcirochelys), 21 spadefoot toads, 4 American toads, 3 bullfrogs, ring-necked snake, 2 mud turtles, box turtle, 62 newts. Devaris, Capt. Dionisios P., Washington, D.C., Javan macaque. Ereckson, Mrs. Lucy, Arlington, Va., coatimundi. Fischer, Mrs. Milla, Washington, D.C., ocelot. Fish and Wildlife Service, Boothbay Harbor, Maine, 6 double-crested cormo- rants, 6 gulls, 2 harbor seals. In cooperation with the Fish and Wildlife Serv- ice W. Widman, senior keeper at the National Zoological Park, collected at Kent Island, Eastern Shore, Md., 6 buflleheads, 4 black ducks, 3 pintails, 2 ring- necked ducks, 6 whistling swans ; at Mills Island, Salisbury, Md., 4 American egrets, 4 Louisiana herons, 2 glossy ibises, 3 great white herons ; and at Wash- ington, N.C., 3 royal terns, 4 gray pelicans. Garret, Col. E. W., Fort Leavenworth, Kans., night monkey. Gray, Steven and Loraine, Bethesda, Md., black-and-red tamarin. Hanson, Charles, Port Clinton, Ohio, massasauga, fox snake. Harris, Lester E., Takoma Park, Md., 14 timber rattlesnakes, hog-nosed snake, Harrison, Allen M., boa constrictor. Hawes, Miss Elizabeth, Washington, D.C., 2 white-throated capuchins. Isaac, Mrs. Lee, Arlington, Va., Formosan macaque. Joy, J. E., St. Angelo, Texas, 5 diamond-back rattlesnakes, prairie rattlesnake 134 AKNTJAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 19 60 Koltisko, Mrs. Frances M., Falls Church, Va., yellow-naped parrot. Kuntz, Dr. Robert E., Taipei, Taiwan, 2 pangolins, 2 Formosan ferret badgers, 2 Formosan maslced civets, 3 Formosan giant flying squirrels, 9 snorkel vipers. 12 Formosan cobras, Pallas's sea eagle. Letner, George, Washington, D.C., 5 canaries, peach-faced lovebird. Munro, George, Calcutta, India, 2 sloth bears. O'Dunue, David, Baltimore, Md., vt'oolly monkey. Palmer, Harold C. Atlanta, Ga., 2 Australian black snakes, tiger snake, brown snake, Australian copperhead, 4 carpet pythons, Australian monitor. Perz, Miss Louise, Sellersville, Pa., hill mynah. Royal Zoological Society, Amsterdam, Holland, G European cormorants. Salzman, Aaron, Alexandria, Va., blue-fronted parrot. Santos, John, Washington, D.C., 9 lineolated parrots, 14 cockatiels. Schmidt's Pet Shop, Washington, D.C., 12 jewelfishes, 38 "Jack Dempseys." Thomas, Charles, Washington, D.C., 2 European goldfinches, 4 European bull- finches, 4 slate-colored juncos, mockingbird. Tuck, Robert, Jr., Point of Rocks, Md., Cuban ground boa. Xanten, William, Jr., Washington, D.C., pygmy rattlesnake, mangrove water snake. PURCHASES Among important purchases of the year were a maned wolf from Argentina and a pair of black leopards. The collection of birds of prey was augmented by the receipt of a white-breasted Philippine sea eagle, black eagle, red-footed falcon, Lanner falcon, bearded vulture or lammergeyer, and two imperial eagles. Other purchases of interest \^ ere as follows: 2 pottos 2 white-faced mongooses 2 bush babies 2 zorillas 2 drills 4 crested rats 3 langur monkeys black genet African pangolin 3 hyrax 2 fennecs 3 Calif omia sea-lions 3 jackals 2 painted storks 2 yaks Indian adjutant stork 3 sarus cranes 4 Cuban trogans 2 McBride's bustards 2 golden woodpeckers 2 starlings 8 crocodile birds 2 touracous 12 sunbirds 12 whydahs 3 ring-necked teal 3 Indian pygmy teals 10 Quaker parakeets 3 red-breasted geese king cobra 2 Tokay geckos Galapagos tortoise 2 ring-tailed genets EXCHANGES By the judicious use of exchanges with other zoos and with indi- viduals the following anunals were obtained : Alipore Zoo, Calcutta, India, 5 yellow monitors, 1 water monitor, 2 pythons, 5 wolf snakes, 3 greater ring-necked parakeets, 12 blossom-headed parakeets, 81 lesser ring-necked parakeets, 2 grey hornbills, 5 darters, 10 cotton teal, 2 pea- cock pheasants, 2 black-headed kaleeges, 12 emerald-winged doves. Secretary's Report l%0 Plate 6 1. A margay kitlcn, shown here witli its mother, is the first ever bora in the National Zo- ological Park. (Ph.itoL'raph by Arthur b'-llis, Il'dshiin^^ton Post.) 2. Maned wolf from the Argentine, a species not hitherto represented in the National Zo- ological Park for many years. Secretary's Report I960 Plate 7 i ■ 4 1. Indian rhinoceros, "Tarum," shown here wiili Senior Keeper Charles Thomas. Xarional Zoological Park. 2. A pair of dorcas gazelles, gifts from the President of Tunisia to President Eisenhower's daughter-in-law. These graceful little antelopes are found in North Africa and South- west Asia. National Zoological Park. (Photograph by Beall, Washington Daily News.) etary's Repurt I'Hil Plate ^ 'S-j N ■ n O J o c« o .-~. r o n: j^ n: ■u 1^ ^ _- '/". C-J „ ^ "^ — ^ ;_: ^t -r •- ^ .:i o '~ r^l r; ^ Ci, c. — ^ 3 ?^ o - tail lizard, desert tortoise. Hanson, Charles, Fort Clinton, Ohio, 4 Blanding's semi-box turtles, Butler's garter suake. Houston Zoo, Houston, Tex., 2 coral snakes, coach-whip snake, hognosed snake, indigo snake, bull snake, speckled snake. Meade, Richard, Hyatt8\alle, Md., 2 Audubon's caracaras. New York Zoo, New York, N.Y., 2 boa constrictors, 2 Japanese water snakes, 2 anacondas, 2 puff adders, 2 mamushi (Ancistrodon). Payne, Mrs. Edward, College Park, Md., 2 saw-whet owls. Philadelphia Zoo, Philadelphia, Pa., 2 coscoroba swans, 2 ruddy sheldrakes, 2 South American sheldrakes, 2 Egyptian geese, 2 wood rails, black-faced ibis, long-eared owl. Quebec Zoo, Orsainvllle, Quebec, 6 evening grosbeaks, 2 white-capped sparrows. Riverside Park Zoo, Scottsbluff, Nebr., 2 golden eagles. Rochester Zoo, Rochester, N.Y., 3 sika deer. San Antonio Zoo, San Antonio, Tex., 5 reddish egrets, 4 cattle egrets, 6 roseate spoonbills, 2 roadrunner.s, ocellated turkey, 2 white-faced glossy ibises, 2 cha- chalacas, 2 cacomistles, 3 nine-banded armadillos. Washington Park Zoo, Portland, Oreg., Columbian ground squirrel, coyote, moun- tain beaver, 3 murres, raven, 6 Pacific rattlesnakes, 2 rubber boas, buUsnake. Zoorama, New Market, Va., guanaco, 2 fallow deer, peccary. BIRTHS AND HATCHINGS The number of young bom in the Zoo was gratifying, although there were, as always, some disappointments. Tlie pair of Pallas's cats, purchased last year, had young but did not raise them. The snow leopard, which had a cub two years ago that was successfully hand-raised, gave birth again, and this time the young was left with the mother and did not survive. For the first time in 30 years, timber wolves were bom here, but none survived. On the other hand, a pair of margays had a kitten which the mother successfully raised, the first time for this Zoo. A hybrid macaque born in the Zoo is of interest because its sire was the famous Philippine macaque that in 1952 soared 37 miles into space encased in an Aerobee rocket shot from the Air Force Base at Holloman, N. Mex. It and a female (since deceased) were the first primates to reach such an altitude and survive. Following the procedure of previous years, all births and batchings are listed below, whether or not the young were successfully raised. In many instances the rexjord of animals having bred in captivity is of importance. The tree kangaroo previously mentioned (p. 132) is included because, while it was not actually bom here, the date of birth of kangaroos is customarily listed as the date when they are first observed in the pouch. 579421—61 12 136 AisnsruAL report Smithsonian institution, i960 MAMMALS Common name Bcienttflo name Number Rat kangaroo Potorous sp 2 Galago Oalago crassicaudatus 1 Potto Perodicticus potto 1 Capuchin Cehus sp 1 Hybrid macaque Macaca pMlippensis X M. irus 1 Barbary ape Macaca sylvanus 1 Sooty mangabey Cercocebus fuliginosus 1 DeBrazza's guenon Cercopithecus neglectus 2 Chimpanzee Pan satyrus 1 Two-toed sloth Choloepus didactylus 3 Prairie dog Cynomys ludovicianus 11 Flying squirrel Olaucomys volans 3 Four-toed jerboa Allactaga tetradactyla 1 Fat-tailed gerbil Pachyuromys duprasi 3 African porcupine Hystrix galeata 5 Dingo Canis antarctious 9 Timber wolf Canis lupus 4 Cape hunting dog Lycaon pictus 6 European bear Ursus arctos 2 Grizzly bear U7-sus horriMlis 1 Hybrid bear Thalarctos maritimus X Ursus middendorffl 1 Coatimundi Nasua narica 1 Newman's genet Genetta genetta 1 African water civet Atilax paludinosus 2 Pallas's cat Felis manul 1 Margay cat Felis weidii tigrina 1 Puma Felis concolor 3 Eastern bobcat Lynx rufus 3 Snow leopard Panthera uncia 1 Grant's zebra Equus hurchelU loehmi 2 Llama Lama glama 3 Brown fallow deer 1 ^„^„ ^^^^ f 4 White fallow deer j 16 Axis deer ^^^« (^^is 2 Red deer Cervus elaphus 3 Elk Cervus canadensis 1 Sika deer Cervus nlppon 5 Virginia deer Odocoileus virginianus 3 Reindeer Rangifer tarandus 4 Sitatunga Tragelaphus spekei 1 Barbary sheep Ammotragus lervia 3 BIRDS Mute swan Cygnus olor 3 Whooper swan Olcn- cygnus 3 Canada goose Branta canadensis 6 SECRETARY'S REPORT 137 Oommon name Soientiflo name Eider duck* Somateria molissima Gadwall* Anas strepera European widgeon* Anas penelope Wood duck Aix sponsa Mandarin duck Dendronessa galericulata^. White-winged scoter Melanitta fusca deglandia. Wild turkey Meleagris gallopavo Red junglefowl Gallus gallus Golden pheasant Chrysolophus pictus Kelp gull Larus dominlcanus 'Hatched from eggs imported from Iceland. REPTILES Slate water snake Enhydris plumhea Florida water snake Natrix pictiventris Cottonmouth moccasin Ancistrodon piscivorus Massasauga Sistrurus catenatus Timber rattlesnake Crotalus horridus Snapping turtle Chelydra serpentina Mobile turtle Pseudemys elegans Painted turtle Chrysemys picta Number 3 5 5 36 5 1 6 8 1 4 Red-bellied turtle Pseudemys rubriventris. 33 26 1 5 5 23 52 9 15 White Cloud Mountain fish. FISHES Tanichthys anonuhes. Many The importance of a zoological collection rests, to a large extent, upon the diversity and scope of its taxonomic representation through- out the whole of the Animal Kingdom. The National Zoological Park has enjoyed some measure of success in efforts to add representa- tive species belonging to little-known or absent families. The total number of accessions for the year was 1,312, This in- cludes gifts, purchases, exchanges, deposits, births, and hatchings. Several minor species which are best displayed in large numbers do not have an individual count, merely being listed as "many." STATUS OF THE COLLECTION Class Orders Families Species or subspecies Individuals Mammals 15 21 4 2 4 3 1 53 80 23 10 8 3 1 245 362 176 19 19 3 1 625-1- Birds _-- 1,0704- Reptiles - 484-1- Amphibians 102-}- Fish... 114 Arthropods __ Many Mollusks Many Total 50 178 825 2, 395-{- 138 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1960 ANIMALS IN THE COLLECTION ON JUNE 30, 1960 MAMMALS MONOTBEMATA Family and common name Scientifto name Number Tachyglossidae : Echidna, or spiny anteater Tachyglossus aculeatus 1 MABSTJPTAT.TA Didelphldae : Opossum Didelphis marsupialis 1 Dasyuridae : Tasmanian devil Sarcophilus harrisii 1 Phalangerldae : Lesser flying phalanger Fetaurus norfolcensis 3 Phascolomidae : Uairy-nosed wombat Lasiorhinus latifrons 2 Mainland wombat Wombatus hirsutus 1 Macropodidae : Eat liangaroo Potoroua sp C Ursine tree kangaroo Dendrolagus ursinui 8 INSECTIVOBA Erinaeeidae : European hedgehog Erinaceua europaeug 1 PBIMATE8 Lorisidae : Great galago • (^(^If^ffo crassicaudatus 2 Senegal galago Galago senegalensis 3 Slow loris Nycticchus coucang 1 Common potto Perodicticus potto 2 Cebidae : Night monkey ^o^«« trivirgatus 6 Red uakari Cacajao ruhicundus 1 Brown capuchin monkey 1 White-throated capuchin \ Cebus capucinus 10 Capuchin J Squirrel monkey Saimiri scivreus 4 Colombian black spider monkey Atcles ftisciccps 1 Spider monkey Ateles gcoffroyi 2 Woolly monkey Lagoihrix pygmaea 2 Callithricidae : Cottontop marmoset Callithrix jacchtis 1 Black-and-red tamarin Saquinus nigricolUs 1 Cercopithecidae : Toque, or bonnet monkey Macaca sinica 3 Javan macaque Macaca irus niordax 2 Crab-enting macaque Macaca irus 1 rhilii)pine macaqtxe Macaca phiJippinensis 2 Macaque hybrid Macaca philippinensis X Macaca irus 1 SECRETARY'S REPORT 139 Family and oommon name ScienUflo name Number CercopitheciUae — Continued Rhesus monkey Macaca tnulatta 4 Formosan monkey Macaca cyclopia 2 Red-faced macaque Macaca speciosa 1 Barbary ape Macaca sylvanus ^ 12 Moor macaque Macaca maurus 1 Gray-cheeked mangabey Cercocebus albigcna 1 Agile mangabey Ccrocehus galeritua agilis 1 Golden-bellied mangabey Cercocebus galeritua chrysogaster 1 Red-crowned mangabey Cercocelus torquatus 1 Sooty mangabey Cercocebus fuliginosus 5 Crested mangabey Cercocebus aterrimus opdenboschii 2 Black-crested mangabey Cercocebus aterrimus 3 Hamadryas baboon Papio hnmadryas 1 Chacma baboon Papio comatus 1 Mandrill Mandrillus sphinx 1 Gelada baboon Theropithecus gelada 1 Vervet guenon Cercopithecua aethiops pygerythrus 1 Green guenon Cercopithecua aethiops sabaeus 2 Guenon, hybrid Cercnpitheous aethiops X G.a. pygerythrus 2 Moustached monkey Cercopithecus ccphus 2 Diana monkey Cercopithecua diana 1 Preussi's guenon Cercopithecua Vhoesti preussi.. 1 DeBrazza'a guenon Cercopithecua neglectus 3 White-nosed guenon Cercopithecua nictitans 1 Lesser white-nosed guenon Cercopithecus nictitans petaurista^ 1 Allen's monkey Allenopithecua nigroviridis 2 Spectacled, or Phayre's langur Presbytls phayrei 1 Entellus monkey Presbytis entellus 2 Pongidae : Wliite-handed gibbon Eylobatea lar Wau-wau gibbon Eylobatea moloch 1 Gibbon, hybrid Eylobatea agilis X H. lar pileatus 1 Gibbon, hybrid Eylobates lar X //. sp 2 Sumatran orangutan Pongo pygmaeua 2 Bomean orangutan Pongo pygmaeus abelil 1 Chimpanzee Pan aatyrus 4 Gorilla Gorilla gorilla 2 EDENTATA Myrmecophagldae : . Giant anteater Myrmecophaga tridaotyla 1 Bradypodidae: Two-toeond turtle Clemmys marmoratamarmorata^ 1 North African pond turtle Clemmys leprosa 2 SECRETARY'S REPORT 155 Famtlif and commonname Scientific name Number Emydidae — Continued European poud turtle Emy.i orbicularis 3 Blanding's turtle Eniys Nandingii 3 Indian fresh-water turlle Batagur laska 1 Reeves's turtle Geoclcmys reevesii 4 Testudinidae : Giant Aldabra tortoise Tesfudo elephantina 2 Galapagos tortoise Testudo elcphantopus 1 Galapagos tortoise Testudo vicina 2 Duncan Island tortoise Testudo ephippium 2 South American tortoise Testudo tahulata 1 Desert tortoise Testudo ngassizii 2 European tortoise Testudo graeca 1 Radiated tortoise Testudo radiata 1 Pelomedusidae : African water turtle Pclomedusa snh^ufa 2 African black mud turtle Pelusios nigricans 1 Amazon spotted tui'tle Podocnetuis unifilis 10 Chelydidae : South American side-necked turtle Batrachcmys nasuta 2 Australian side-necked turtle Ckelodina longicollis 3 Small side-necked turtle Eydromedusa tectifcra 2 Large side-necked turtle Phrynops hilarii 11 Krefft's turtle^ Emydura Icrefftii 3 Murray turtle Emydura tnacquarrii 6 South American gibba turtle Mesoclemmys gibha 3 Flat-headed turtle Platemys platycephala 7 Trionychidae : Florida soft-shelled turtle Trionyx ierox 6 African soft-shelled turtle Trionyx triunguis 2 SAURIA Gekkonidae: Gecko Tarentola mauritanica 1 Giant gecko Gekko stentor 1 Nelson's gecko Aristelliger nelsoni 1 Indian gecko Gekko sp 1 Iguanidae : Common iguana Iguana iguana 3 Swan Island iguana Iguana delicatisstna 4 Carolina auole Anolis carolinensis Many Nelson's anolis Anolis nelsoni 2 Giant anole Anolis equestris 1 Texas horned lizard Phrynosoma cornutum 1 Horned lizard Phrynosoma platyrhinos 1 Crested lizard Leiocephalus varius 3 Blue scaly lizard Sceloporus cyanogenys 1 Red scaly lizard Sceloporus poinsettii 2 Fence lizard Sceloporus undulatus 1 Ameiva lizard Ameiva a. ameiva I British Guiana green lizard Ccntropyx striatus 1 Black iguana Ctenosaura acanthiira 1 Desert iguana Dipsosaurus dorsalis 3 156 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1960 Family and common name Bvientifto name Number Scincidae : Mourning skink Eyernia luctuosa 2 White's skink Eyernia whitei 4 Greater five-lined skink Eumeces fasciatua 7 Sand skink Sciticus offlcinalia 5 Stump-tailed skink Tiliqua ruyosa 1 Malayan skink Mabuya timltifasciata 3 Gerrhosauridae : Plated lizard Gerrhosaurus major 2 Teiidae : Black tegu TupinamMa niyropunctatus 1 Yellow tegu Tupinamhia teyuixin 1 Whiptail lizard Cnemidophorua yularia 1 Varanidae : Dum(5rirs monitor lizard Varanua dumerili 1 Indian monitor lizard Varanua flaveacena 6 Indian monitor lizard Varanua salvator 1 Australian lace monitor Varanua variua 3 Clouded monitor Varanua nebulosua 1 Helodermatidae : Mexican beaded lizard Heloderma horriduni 2 Beaded lizard (black phase) Heloderma horridum 1 Gila monster Heloderma auapectum 2 Anguidae : Glass lizard Ophiaaurua ventralia 3 SERPBiNTEB Boldae : Anaconda Ennectea murinua 3 Tree boa Boa enydria enydria 1 Cook's tree boa Boa enydria cooki 11 Boa constrictor Conatrictor eonatrictor 1 Emperor boa Constrictor imperator 1 Rubber boa Charina bottae 2 Cuban ground boa Tropidophia melanura 1 Rainbow boa Epicratea cenchria 2 Cuban tree boa Epicratea angulifer 5 Ball python Python rcyiua 1 African python Python sebae 1 Indian rock python Python molurua 4 Regal python Python reticulatua 1 Colubridae : Water snake Natrix aipedon 1 European grass snake Natrix natriw 1 Southern banded water snake Natrix faaciata 2 Diamond-backed water snake Natrix rhombifera 1 Brown water snake Natrix taxispilota 4 Red-bellied water snake Natrix erythrogaster 2 Island water snake Natrix inaularum 1 Mangrove snake Natrix compreaaicauda 1 Garter snake Thamnophia airtalia sirtalis 3 California red-sided garter snake Thamnophia airtalia infernalia 1 SECRETARY'S REPORT 157 Family and common name Bcientifto name Number Colubridae — Continued Eastern hog-nosed snake Heterodon platyrhinos 1 Ring-necked snake Diadophis punctatiis cdwardsii 1 Black racer Colvher constrictor constrictor 4 Red racer Masticophls flagellum 1 Green snake Opfieodrys acstivus 1 Indigo snake DrymarcTion corais couperi 1 Texas indigo snake Drymarchon corais 1 Asiatic rat snake EJaphe taeviura 2 Lesser Indian rat snake Elaphe carinata 2 Pilot black snake Elaphe ohsoleta ohsoleta 7 Fox snake Elaphe ■milpina 1 Corn snake Elaphe obsoleta guttata 3 Lindheimer's rat snake Elaphe ohsoleta Uvdheimeri 1 Chicken snake Elaphe qnadrlvittata 1 Aesculapian snake Elaphe longlssima 1 Bnll snake Pitnophis sayi 2 King snake Lampropeltis getvlus getulus 3 Speckled king snake Lampropeltis getulus holhrooki 3 California king snake Lampropeltis getulus califomiae^ 2 Sonoran king snake Lampropeltis getulus splendida 1 Scarlet king snake Lampropeltis doliata doliata 2 Milk snake Lampropeltis triangulum 2 Tropical king snake Lampopeltis polyzonus 1 Cat-eyed snake Leptodeira annulata 1 DeKay's snake Storeria dekayi 1 Flying snake Chrysopelea ornata 1 Twig, or vine, snake Thelotornis kirtlandi 1 Green whip snake Dryophis prasinus 1 File snake Simocephalus capensis 1 Glossy snake Arizona clegans 1 European whip snake Zamenis gemonensis 1 Wolf snake Lycodon flavomaculatus 4 Elapidae: Indian cobra IS^aja naja 4 Taiwan cobra Xaja naja atra 17 Egyptian cobra l^aja haje 1 Krait Butigarus multicinctus 1 Acrochordidae : Elephant trunk snake Acrochordus javanicus 1 Crotalidae : Southern copperhead Ancistrodon coniortrix contor- trix 1 Northern copperhead Ancistrodon contortrix mokrsnn. 4 Western broad-banded copperhead Ancistrodon contortrix laticinc- tus 1 Water moccasin, or cottonmouth Ancistrodon piscivorus 5 Cantil Ancistrodon hilineatus 1 Mamushi Ancistrodon halys Momlioffi, 2 Asian snorkel viper Ancistrodon acutus 3 Green palm viper Trimcresurus gramineus 2 Green palm viper Trimcresurus stejnegeri 3 158 ANTHJAL REPORT SMirHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1960 Family and common name Bcientiflo name Numier Crotalidae — Coutlnued "Wagler's pit viper Trimeresurus waglcri l Mamuslii, or Asiatic viper Trimeresurus elegans 2 Habu, or Asiatic viper Trimeresurus flavoviridis 1 Timber rattlesnake Crotalus horridus 1 Southern Pacific rattlesnake Crotalus viridis lielleri 6 Prairie rattlesnake Crotalus viridis viridis 1 Western diamondback rattlesnake Crotalus atrox 6 AMPHIBIANS CAUDATA Amphiumidae : Congo eel Amphiuma means 3 Ambystomidae : Tiger salamander Ambystotna tigrinum 1 Salamandridae : Red-bellied newt Diemictylus pyrrhogaster 10 Red-spotted newt Diemictylus viridescena 25 SALIENTIA Bufonidae : American toad Bufo americanus 2 Giant toad Bufo marinus 5 Cuban toad Bufo peltocephalus 6 Pelobatidae : Spadefoot toad Scaphiopus holbroolci 5 Pipidae : Surinam toad Pipa pipa 20 Leptodactylidae : Colombian horned frog Ceratophrys calcarala 2 Argentine horned frog Ceratophrys ornata 1 Ilylidae : Barking tree frog Hyla gratiosa 1 Green tree frog Hyla cinerea 1 Gray tree frog Hyla versicolor 4 Microhylidae : Narrow-mouthed toad Mieroliyla olivacea 1 Ranidae: African bull frog Rana adspersa 7 American bull frog Rana cates'beiana 3 Green frog Rana elamitans 5 Leopard frog Rana pipiens Many ARTHROPODS DECAFODA Ce-nobltidae : Land hermit crab CoenoUta clypeatus Many ARANKIDA Therldildae: Black-widow spider Latrodectus mactans 1 SECRETARY'S REPORT 159 OUTHOPTERA Family and common name Scientific name Number Blattidae : Tropical giant cockroach Blaberu8 giganteus Many MOLLUSKS PUI.MONATA PlanorWdao : Pond snail Eelisoma trivolvis Many FISHES NEOCEKATODONTOIDEI Lepiclosirenidae : South American luiigfish Lepidosiren paradoxa 1 Protopteridae : African liingflsh Protopterus annectens 2 OSTABIOPHYSOinEI Characidae : Metynnis Metynnis roosevelti 1 Black tetra Oynmocoi-ymhus lernetsi 3 Cymnotidae: African knifefish Sternarchella schotti 1 Cyprinidae : Zebra fish Brachydanio r-erio 9 Clown barb Barhua everetti 1 Tiger barb Puntius partipentazona 8 White Cloud Mountain fish Tnnichthys alhonuies 15 CYPRINODONTOIDEI Poecillidae: Flag-tailed guppy LcUatea reticulatus 10 Guppy LcMstes reticulatus 15 Black mollle Mollienisia latipinna 2 Platy, or moonfish Xiphopliorua maculatus 1 PEKCOMOKPHOIDEI Anabaiitoldea : Climbing perch Anaiaa testudineus 3 Cichlidae : Peacock cichlid Asironotus ocellatus 1 Egyptian mouthbreeder Ilaplochromis multicolor 3 Angelflsh Pterophyllutn eimekei 2 "Jack Dempsey" fish Cichlasoma hiocellatum 35 Jewelflsh TIemichromis hirnaculatus J HNANCES Funds for the operation of the National Zoological Park are appro- priated annually under the District of Columbia Appropriation Act. The operation and maintenance appropriation for the fiscal year 1960 totaled $1,165,200, -which was $211,400 more than for the fiscal year 160 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1960 1959. The increase consisted of $41,200 to cover wage-board salary increases; $19,100 for within-grade salary advancements for both classified and wage-board employees; $130,600 to establish 28 new positions ; $9,000 increase for the purchase of animal food ; $2,500 in miscellaneous supplies; and $9,000 for the purchase of new equip- ment. Of the total appropriation, 82.3 percent ($958,631) was used for sal- aries and related personnel costs and 17.7 percent ($206,569) for the maintenance and operation of the Zoo. Included in the latter figure were $74,000 for animal food; $17,296 for fuel for heatmg; $32,598 for materials for building construction and repaii-s; $8,090 for the purchase of animals ; $9,600 for electricity ; $4,871 for telephone, postal, and telegiaph services; and $5,000 for veterinarian equipment and supplies. The balance of $55,114 in operational funds was expended for other items, including freight, sundry supplies, uniforms, gasoline, road repairs, equipment replacement, and new equipment. In addition to the regular appropriation $130,000 was appropriated for capitjil outlay : $44,000 to repair the roofs of the small mammal house, large mammal house, and reptile house ; and $86,000 for safety improvements. PERSONNEL In fiscal year 1960 there were 186 authorized positions at the Zoo divided as follows: Administrative office, 16; anunal department, 70, an increase of 12 over the previous year; mechanical department, 61, an increase of 11 ; police department, 30, an increase of 3 ; and grounds department, 9, an increase of 2. Lt. J. R. Wolfe was appointed chainnan of the safety committee, succeeding Dr. James F. Wriglit, who will continue as a member of the subcommittee. Lt. C. E. Brink replaced Lt. Wolfe as the police depart- ment member of the subcouunittee. Capt. William Jx. James recruited and organized a group of 15 Zoo employees to receive training at the Civil Defense Fire School. First- aid classes were organized with Pvt. C. S. Grubbs of the police depart- ment and L. Eatliff of the animal department as instructors. Ernest Cook, supervisory animal keeper, retired on March 9, 1960, after serving the Zoo since December 1, 1930. During most of those years he worked in the bird house. FRIENDS OF THE NATIONAL ZOO "Friends of the National Zoo," a group of civic-minded District residents, were active again this year. On September 26 and 27 they carried out a two-day "Salute to the National Zoo," which drew 53,000 visitors. Embassies and State societies donated flags which were flown SECRETARY'S REPORT 161 in front of many of the cages, indicating the country of origin of the animal on exhibit. Special labels set in laminated plastic were writ- ten for 16 exhibits. On the second day of the "Salute" a new flagpole was formally dedicated "in warm admiration for Dr. William M. Mann, former Director." Max Kampelman, president of the Friends of the National Zoo, made the presentation, which was accepted by Dr. Remington Kellogg, representing the Smithsonian Institution. Zoo Park Police Officei^ Trautman, Ellerbe, and Moore formed a mounted color guard as the new 49-star flag was raised to the top of the flagpole at the Comiecticut Avenue entrance to the Zoo. On December 14 at the Chancery of the Israeli Embassy in Wash- ington the National Zoological Park received a set of 50 plaques de- signed as labels for zoo animals mentioned in the Old Testament. These are replicas of the labels used in the Biblical Zoo in Jerusalem and have, besides the name of the animal, the appropriate text quoted in both English and Hebrew. The plaques themselves are of laminated plastic in soft shades of blue, green, and bronze, with the lettering in white. They have been installed in the Zoo and will later be sent as a traveling exhibit to other interested zoos in the States, returning to Washington as a permanent exhibit. At the ceremony at the Chancery, the plaques were presented to the Director of the National Zoological Park by Machael Arnon, Counselor of the Embassy. Among those present were Dr. John L. Keddy, representing the Smithsonian Institu- tion, John Perry, president of the Friends of the National Zoo, J. Lear Grimmer, Associate Director of the Zoo, and Dr. William M. Mann, former Director. INFORMATION AND EDUCATION The Zoo continues to handle a large correspondence with persons all over the world who write for information i-egarding animals. From every part of this country citizens write to the Zoo as a national institution. Telephone calls come in constantly, asking for identifica- tion of animals, proper diets, or treatment of disease. Visitors to the office as well as to the animal exhibits are constantly seeking information. The Director spent seven weeks (August to October) in Europe, attending the meeting of the International Union of Directors of Zoological Gardens in Copenhagen, Denmark, and visiting zoological parks in Russia, Germany, Switzerland, Holland, Belgimn, France, and the British Isles. Particular studies were made of new construc- tion and methods of management. On his return he lectured before various civic and scientific groups and showed his pictures of the European zoos. He also gave one radio interview. 162 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 19 60 Dr. James F. Wright, veterinarian, went to Senegal, West Africa, at the request of the Forestry Department of that comitry to instruct its officers in the use of the "flying syringe." The Senegalese Gov- ernment was interested in this method of immobilizing animals be- cause of the necessity of relocating some of the herds of game, which they wished to do with as little loss of individual animals as possible. While in Senegal, Dr. Wright captured a def assa kob, which was sent to the Zoo in Brazzaville, Congo. As far as is known, this is the first example of a wild animal being captured by the projectile syringe for exliibition in a zoo. Dr. Wright participated in a "Symposium on the Automatic Projectile Syringe" at the University of Georgia, Athens, Ga., in April 1960. He spoke on "The Projectile Delivery of Drugs in Zoo Work" and (with Dr. Warren R. Pistey of the University of Virginia) on "Immobilization of Captive Wild Animals with Succinylcholine." Malcolm Davis, associate headkeeper, spoke to civic and church groups, and also to the Northern Virginia Ornithological Society. He continued to write a weekly nature colunm for the Hemdon-Chan- tUly Times and to edit the publication "Capsules" for the Woodard Research Corporation in Hemdon, Va. Keepers Burgess, DePrato, Maliniak, and Widman brought Zoo animals to the television screen repeatedly. Many of these programs were broadcast on the "Time for Science" series from station WTTG, sponsored by the Greater Washington Educational Television Asso- ciation, and watched by 50,000 students in the District of Columbia, Maryland, and Virginia. The same program also made a film in the Zoo of mammals, birds, and reptiles, which was shown over WTTG. Ordinarily the Zoo does not conduct guided tours of the Park, but exceptions were made for groups of handicapped children — orthopedic cases, a small group of blind children from Hyattsville (IMd.) Ele- mentary School, and 30 deaf children from Gallaudet College. The largest of these groups consisted of 60 handicapped children who were brought to the Zoo by the Kiwanis Club. In all cases police and keepers escorted them. The Department of Zoology, University of Maryland, brought a class of 12 students of vertebrate zoology to study the living animals. This course, which was under the direction of Dr. Howard Winn, in- cluded four visits to the Zoo, and studies were made of mammals, birds, and reptiles. Tape recordings of sounds of small mammals and of bird songs were made, to be played back later in the classroom. The Virginia Heqoetology Society met in the reptile house on No- vember 14, 1959, and members were given a guided tour by Senior Keeper Mario DePrato. Mr. DePrato also spoke to a class of students from Taylor School who visited the reptile house. SECRETARY'S REPORT 163 A group of 1,620 foreign exchange students visited the Pai-k on July 16, 1959 ; and 16,785 School Safety Patrol children, in 420 buses, came to the Zoo on May 14, 1960, from many parts of the United States. While the Zoo does not conduct a regular research program as such, effort is made to study the animals and to improve their health, hous- ing, and diet in every way possible. REPORT OF THE VETERINARIAN As reported in previous years (1958, 1959) the projectile type of syringe proved its usefulness in providing medication for captive animals. With this method it is not necessary to rope, manhandle, trap, or cage animals or exhaust either animals or keepers. As the operator seldom needs help in using it, a considerable saving in man- hours is also effected. With the use of the projectile syringe and the immobilizing tech- niques, tliree interesting surgical operations were performed. One was the removal of a large goiter from a male spotted hyena anesthetized with a new barbitiu'ate. A survey of the available rec- ords indicates that this type of thyroid enlargement has been found in the past in hyenas in the National Zoological Park. The animal had been treated medically for six months prior to surgery without noticeable improvement. A small fibroma was removed from the back of an Alaskan brown bear, using pentobarbital sodium intra- venously as an anesthetic and succinylcholine chloride intramuscularly as a pre-anesthetic. The pre-anesthetic facilitated a smooth and quick induction of the intravenous barbiturate. A broken tooth was re- moved from one of the female Malay sun bears with succinylcholine chloride and a local anestlietic. With the newer techniques, this op- eration was completed in a few mmutes instead of the more usual several hours. A preliminary report on the use of succinylcholine chloride was published in YeteHnary Medichie (vol. 54, p. 446, Sept. 1959), and a more complete paper was presented by Dr. Warren R. Pistey at a symposium on the automatic projectile syrmge at the University of Georgia in April 1960. To the animals listed in last year's report as successfully immo- bilized with this drug, the following can be added: Alaskan brown bear, spectacled bear, Peninsula bear, hybrid bear, Formosan macaque, rhesus monkey, European brown bear, sloth bear, and Malayan sun bear. Work with alkaloidal nicotine as an immobilizing agent was con- tinued on native white-tailed deer in cooperation with Dr. Vagn Flyger of the State of Maryland Department of Eesearch and Education. 164 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1960 Capchurbarb was used for the first time on captive wild animals this past spring with excellent results. Depending on the dosage, this drag may be used for immobilization, sedation, or for anesthesia by the intramuscular route. The following species were successfully immobilized with this drug: peccary, tahr goat, white fallow deer, Formosan macaque, spotted hyena, and Nubian ibex. Results so far indicate that this drug will have a far greater application than any of the others for inmiobilization. During April 1960, Maj. Patrick Bromfield, game control officer of the Bechuanaland Protectorate, spent some time in the National Zoological Park studying the use of the automatic projectile syringe and methods of immobilization, in order to translocate game in the Protectorate. He also conferred with game officials in Maryland, Georgia, Tennessee, and the National Park Service. Tuberculosis remains the most important health problem in our hoofed animals. In the recent past, animals that have not reacted to the intradermic tuberculin test were found infected with tubercu- losis at necropsy. This loss of sensitivity to tuberculin is apparently not uncommon in the later stages of the disease. Arrangements were made with the U.S. Department of Agi-iculture to determine the presence of serum antibodies for tuberculosis in suspect animals. Accordingly, two elands and a giraffe, all suspect but not reacting to the intradermic test, were immobilized with succinylcholine and blood samples were obtained for serology. A hybrid Philippine and Javan macaque with severe central nervous system symptoms showed, upon pathological examination, to have had cerebral and pulmonary forms of cryptococcosis. Seven other monkeys of various species were sent to the Armed Forces Institute of Pathology since last year, all of which, during life, had shown signs of acute amaurotic epilepsy as described by Langdon and Cadwallader in 1915 and Van Bogaert and Scherer in 1935. Some of these monkeys were sent for euthanasia in the last stages of the disease. Keepers in the monkey house state that this condition has occurred there for years without an apparent change in morbidity or severity. The pathologists' report is not completed at this time, but it is felt tha,t the disease is not contagious, if indeed infectious. Dr. F. R. Lucas, Livestock Sanitary Laboratory, Centreville, Md., provided the following laboratory services: bacterial cultures and identification, urinalysis, dark field examinations for Leptospira, and microscopic tissue reports. Hearts and large vessels of necropsy specimens not needed by the Armed Forces Institute of Pathology were delivered to Dr. Thomas Peery of the George "Washington University School of Medicine for his study of comparative pathology. SECRETARY'S REPORT 165 Parasitological identifications were conducted by Mrs, Mabelle Chitwood and Allen INIcIntosh of the U.S. Department of Agricul- ture's Animal Disease and Parasite Research Division. A. P. Can- non of the University of Kansas, currently at the University of Maryland, made blood smears from 55 snakes revealing 12 individuals of 8 species harboring hemogregarine blood parasites. The subject of these blood parasites in snakes would support a full-time research project for investigation. A cooperative investigation was originated with Dr. William L. Straus, W. J. Young, and T. Merz, of Johns Hopkins University to study chromosomes in primates by obtaining blood samples from the available subjects. Mr. Young is also interested in studying tlie gen- etic structure of the hybrid bears, F^ and F^, by working with blood samples wliich can now be easily obtained by immobilizing the ani- mals. Several alligators, both small and medium sized, were provided to Dr. A. G. Morrow and Dr. L. J. Greenfield of the National Heart Institute, for anatomical and physiological studies on the cardiac system, since these reptiles have normal hearts which are similar in construction to the hearts of children with congenital heart defects. Two Indian pythons and two American alligators were taken to the Department of Biophysics at Walter Eeed Army Medical Cen- ter to assist Maj. K. T. Woodward in determining the muscle mass of various animals by the use of a scintillating counter which meas- ures muscle potassimn. Following are the statistics for the mortality rates during the past fiscal year and a table of comparison with the past six fiscal years: Mortality, fiscal year 1960 Attri- Death tion* Mammals 114 39 Birds 140 35 Reptiles 112 92 Total mortality, past 6 fiscal years 1055 735 1956 618 1957 549 1958 .550 1959 472 1960 532 366 166 •Attrition Is the term used for those losses due mainly to the trauma of shipment and handling after accession at the Zoo, or before an animal can adapt to cage habitation within the collection. Animals that had been in the collection for a relatively long time and died this year were: A Swinhoe's pheasant {Gennaeus swinhoii) received August 11, 1931, died August 10, 1959, after 28 years; an Indian crow {Gorvus wjiolens), received September 28, 1937, from the National Geographic Society-Smithsonian Institution Expedition to the Netherlands East Indies, died November 4, 1959, after 22 years 166 AIs-NUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTnUTION, 19 60 1 month. 7 days; a short-tailed shrew {Blarina hrevicauda) ^ which usually does not live in captivity, was exhibited from December 27, 1957, to March 28, 1960, a total of 2 years 3 months 1 day; and a marabou stork {Leptopilus crumeniferus) ^ received from the Victor J. Evans estate on February 20, 1931, died May 19, 1960, after 29 years 3 months. COOPERATION At all times special efforts are made to maintain friendly contacts with other Federal and State agencies, private concerns and individ- uals, and scientific workers for mutual assistance. As a result, the Zoo receives much help and advice and many valuable animals, and in turn it furnishes information and, whenever possible, animals it does not need. Special aclniowledgment is due George Kirk and John Pulaski, in the office of the U.S. Dispatch Agent in New York City, and Stephen E. Lato, dispatch agent in San Francisco, who are frequently called upon to clear shipments of animals coming from abroad, often at great personal inconvenience. The animals have been forwarded to Washington without the loss of a single individual. Wlien it is necessary to quarantine animals coming into this country, they are taken to the U.S. Department of Agriculture's station in Clifton, N.J. During the past year Dr. B. C. Swindell and Andy Goodel, two of the officials stationed there, have been most cooperative in keeping the National Zoological Park informed as to the well-being of animals and birds held there for quarantine. Animals that die in the Zoo are offered to the United States National Museum. If the Museum does not need them, they may be sent to re- search workers in other institutions. During the past year the Museum accepted 41 mammals, which are to be preserved as scientific specimens. The Zoo cooperated with the National Capital Parks and lent small animals to Park naturalists and to the Nature Center in Eock Creek Park for demonstration. A collection of reptiles was loaned to Walter Ee^^d Army Medical Center in order to have a film made of poisonous snakas. Senior Keeper W. Widman trapped a number of sea gulls for a research project at the National Institutes of Health. Gifts of plants were received from Mount Vernon, the Botanical Gardens, St. Elizabeths Hospital, the Naval Obsen-atory, and the Soldiers' Home. VISITORS Attendance at the Zoo this year reached a total of 4,059,804. In general, tliis figure is based on estimates rather than actual counts. SECRETARY'S REPORT 167 Estimated number of visitors for fiscal year 1960 July (1959) 516, 829 August 446, 000 September 364, 500 October 302, 300 November 180, 400 December 93,600 January (1960) 127,900 February 86, 150 March 216, 425 April 515, 400 May 632, 200 June 578, 100 Total 4,059,804 Number of bus groups Locality Alabama Connecticut District of Columbia Delaware Florida Georgia__ Illinois Indiana Iowa Kentucky Massachusetts Maine Maryland Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Number of groups Number in groups 16 546 23 131 950 5,714 7 320 28 2,911 31 6, 623 3 130 5 224 1 14 48 578 6 318 1 554 33 2,222 5 174 9 357 4 116 Locality Nebraska New Hampshire New Jersey New York North Carolina. Ohio. Oklahoma Pennsylvania South Carolina - South Dakota.. Tennessee Texas West Virginia _- Wisconsin Virginia Total Number of groups 1 4 23 154 204 35 1 211 51 1 70 1 35 o O 413 2.045 Number in groups 40 130 1, 166 6, 054 8,943 2,031 60 13, 177 2, 164 31 3,040 60 1,667 228 29, 436 89, 491 Groups from foreign countries Asia Ecuador Foreign officers International exchange students Japan Number of groups Number in groups 2 110 1 7 2 91 1 1,620 1 15 Korea Norway Sweden Thailand Total Number of groups 16 Number 105 161 28 35 2, 172 579421—61- -14 168 AZSTNTJAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1960 About 2 p.m. each day the cars then parked in the Zoo are counted and listed according to the State, Territory, or country from which they come. This is, of course, not a census of the cars coming to the Zoo but is valuable in showing the percentage of attendance by States of people in private automobiles. Many District of Columbia, Mary- land, and Virginia cars come to the Zoo to bring guests from other States. The tabulation for the fiscal year 1960 is as follows : Percentage Maryland 32. 3 Virginia 23. District of Columbia 20. 5 Pennsylvania 3. 5 New York 2. 5 North Carolina 2. New Jersey 1. 6 Ohio 1. 5 West Virginia 1. 1 Florida 1. 1 Massachusetts . 9 Percentage California 0. 7 Connecticut . 7 Michigan • 7 South Carolina . 6 Illinois . 6 Tennessee . 6 Texas . 4 Georgia . 4 Indiana . 4 Total 95. 1 The remaining 4.9 percent came from other States, Arabia, Azores, British Columbia, Canal Zone, Cuba, England, France, Guatemala, Germany, Japan, Manitoba, Mexico, Morocco, New Brunswick, New- foundland, Nova Scotia, Okinawa, Panama, Puerto Rico, Virgin Islands, and Yugoslavia. On the days of even small attendance there are cars parked in the Zoo fi-om at least 15 States, Territories, the District of Columbia, and foreign countries. On average days there are cars from about 22 States, Territories, the District of Columbia, and foreign countries; and during the periods of greatest attendance the cars represent not less than 34 different States, Territories, and countries. Parking spaces in the Zoo now accommodate 1,079 cars when the bus parking place is utilized and 909 cars when it is not used. At the request of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institu- tion and the Commissioners of the District of Columbia, a survey was made during the year to determine the residence of the visitors by percentage. The work was done by the Zoo police under the guidance of Albert Mindlin and Samuel Rosenthal, analytical statisticians of the Management Office of the District of Columbia. Three categories of residence were listed : District of Columbia, sub- urbs (the surrounding four counties), and the rest of the country. Mr. Mindlin set up a method of sampling that was scientifically de- signed and conducted to produce statistically valid and reliable re- sults. To accomplish this a random sampling of all visitors in the Zoo was to be taken from one spot in the Zoo. Following pre-test sur- veys made in several spots scattered throughout the Zoo at various times of the day, the spot finally selected was at the water fountain SECRETARY'S REPORT 169 between the bears and the hardy cats. To insuie that the police offi- cers doing the interviewing were completely unable to affect, either intentionally or unintentionally, the random sampling of the visitors, a chalk line was drawn on the sidewalk and the interviewer given a mechanical hand counter. It was specified that he should interview eveiy tenth person coming down the hill, with the exception of babes in arms. During those portions of the year when visitor attendance was very light, every fifth person was interviewed. To insure random sampling, one Sunday was selected at random from all the Sundays of the month, one Saturday at random from the Saturdays, and two weekdays at random from the available week- days. The day selected was divided into four 2-hour periods ; in each period 1 houi* was selected at random. The police officer to make the interviews was randomly selected from those available on the day of the sampling. The police officer asked each interviewee a single question : "Where do you live ?" The information gathered from the visitor survey was then reduced to mathematical formulae by the research statistician of the District of Columbia, and the following cmnulative percentages were arrived at: District of Columbia residents, 18.8; nonresidents, 81.2 (sub- urban, 30 ; otlier, 51.2) . POLICE DEPARTMENT Activities in the police department showed a marked increase in keeping with the larger visitor attendance. A new cruiser was placed in service and traveled a distance of 24,000 miles in the year. This made possible more rigid traffic-law enforcement and resulted in an increase in the number of arrests for traffic violations. Sgt. D. B. Bell and Sgt. E. A. King attended and graduated from the Metropolitan Police Academy in March. Lt. C. E. Brink, Sgt. E. A. King, Pvts. M. J. Devlin, H. J. Moore, and D. E. Trautman attended the monthly sessions of the Law En- forcement Institute at the University of Maryland and received certificates in June. Sgt. A. L. Canter and Pvt. G. PI. Adams attended a special course in the driver training program held by the Bureau of Departmental Operations, U.S. Civil Service Commission. The mounted color guard consisting of five men, with Sgt. D. B. Bell in charge, participated in several parades. The old switchboard at police headquarters was taken out of service at the administration building, and a new modern telephone system was put in operation early in November. A new target range was completed, giving all members of the department the opportunity to practice and qualify for better marks- manship. Work on it was done by volunteer members of the force. 170 AXNTJAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 19 60 The total number of visitors stopping in the police station for information of various sorts was 13,262. First aid was given (prin- cipally for minor accidents such as bee stings or scraped knees) to 1,107 persons. Fifteen pairs of unclaimed eyeglasses and sunglasses were sent to the Society for the Prevention of Blindness, and six bags of unclaimed clothing and miscellaneous articles were turned over to the Goodwill Industries. BUILDINGS AND GROUNDS No funds were appropriated for new construction, and the regular maintenance work of patching and painting old buildings was carried on throughout the year. A number of minor improvements, however, were carried out. A 5-ton air conditioner was installed in the feed bam for the Alaskan reindeer, and an overhead sprinkler was built in a corner of their outside yard. This shower bath runs contmuously, and the reindeer obviously enjoy it, as one or more animals can usually be seen standing under it. While a fine spray of water cools their backs, they stretch their necks, tilt their heads up, and with open mouths snap at the drops of water. A complete rewiring of the reptile house was completed, and re- wiring and a new system of lighting were installed in the monkey house. Pilot models of radiant heat were put in the floors of tliree shelters for hoofed stock. A shelter, constructed in 1893 for a small herd of llamas and used in recent years for elk, was remodeled into a stable for the tliree police horses. The murals in the Zoo Park Restaurant were given a thorough cleaning under the supervision of the artist Domenico Mortellito, of Wilmington, Del. The murals, designed by Mr. Mortellito in 1940 on carved, lacquered battleship linoleum, depict Noah's Ark above the fireplace and animals marching two by two around all four walls. They had darkened through the years, but may now be seen in their original glowing colors. The work of the gardener's force consisted mainly of removing dead trees, which are a menace to both animals and visitors, and re- placing them with young trees. In all, 226 trees were cut down, and 153 were limbed and topped. Stands of grass in several enclosures were thriving before the animals were moved in, and efforts are now being made to maintain the grass. Work continued on the new serv- ice road, with grading, ditching, and general maintenance, and the bank has been terraced with logs, brush reforesting, and grass seeding. Vines, weeds, and trees on or around two-thirds of the Zoo boundary were cut and trimmed. A nursery consisting of nearly 5,000 young SECRETARY'S REPORT 171 trees, mostly evergreens, was cared for by the gardener's force. Three men attended the Fire School at General Services Administration, three attended horticultural classes at the National Bureau of Stand- ards, and four took the first-aid course. PLANS FOR THE FUTURE A new office to replace the 155-year-old "mansion" is imperative. The present administration building, while a historic landmark, is not suited to the purpose for which it is being used, nor is it safe, being honeycombed with termites and rotted from dampness. A modern building, with properly arranged offices, library stacks and shelves, a conference room, and a small laboratory, is badly needed. The facilities at the National Zoological Park are based on anti- quated installations and should be modernized, starting with such basic necessities as water, electricity, sewage, and heating. It is hoped that a master plan can be drawn for the Zoo so that all future con- struction and work may be coordinated. Respectfully submitted. Theodore H. Reed, Director. Dr. Leonard Carmichael, Secretary^ Smithsonian Institution. Report on the Canal Zone Biological Area Sir : It gives me pleasure to present herewith the annual report on the Canal Zone Biological Area for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1960. SCIENTISTS, STUDENTS, AND OBSERVERS Following is the list of 39 scientists, students, and observers who visited Barro Colorado Island last year, and stayed for several days, in order to conduct scientific research or observe the wildlife of the area. Twenty-seven other scientific visitors each spent a day and a night on the island. In addition, scientists of other research and technical organizations in the Canal Zone and the Republic of Panama made use of station facilities. Name Bennett, Mr. and Mrs. Charles, Jr., University of California, Los Angeles. Blaufuss, Arnold, Chicago, III. Boyajian, Edward, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pa. Brattstron, Dr. B., Adelphi University, Garden City, N.Y. Brown, Dr. W. L., Jr., Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass. Carpenter, Dr. C. R., Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pa. Carpenter, Lane, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pa. Cox, George, University of Illinois, Urbana, IIL Cumming, R. B., University of Florida, Gainesville, Fla. Eastman, Whitney, Minneapolis, Minn. Edens. Mrs. LaPrelle, Minneapolis, Minn. Edwards, Dr. E. P., Amherst, Va. Elsenmann, Dr. Eugene, New York City. 172 Principal interest Temperature and humidity, gradients in forest. Wildlife observation. Birds. Reptiles and amphibians. Ants. Howler monkeys. Assistant to Dr. Carpenter. Tropical bird physiology. Insects. Birds. Birds. Birds. Birds. SECRETARY'S REPORT 173 Name Principal intervvt Elms, Alan, Assistant to Dr. Carpenter. Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pa. Gasteiger, Dr. E. L,, Comparative physiology. University of Rochester, Rochester, N.X. Gersh, Dr. Isidore, Wildlife observation. University of Chicago, Chicago, 111. Griffin, Dr. D. R., Bats. Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass. Groner, Mrs. Dorothy E., Los Angeles, Calif. Kendeigh, Dr. and Mrs, S. Charles, University of Illinois, Urbana, 111. Kerr, Col. David, Arlington, Va. Kuehn, Robert, University of California, Berkeley. Linford, Dr. J. B., Oakland, Calif. Mason, Dr. W. A., Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pa. McCluskey, Dr. Elwood, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass. McCue, Dr. J. H. G., Massachusetts Institute of Tech- nology, Cambridge, Mass. McKittrick, T.H., Blairstown, N.J. Metzuda, Dr. Japan. Peterman, Dan, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pa. Petkins, Mrs. S., Gorgas Memorial Laboratory, Panama. Ryan, Richard, New Shrewsbury, N.J. Smith, John, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass. Southwick, Dr. C. R., Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pa. Stuart, AJaistair, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass. Warren, James, University of California, Los Angeles. Wessenberg, Dr. Harry, San Francisco State College, San Francisco, Calif. Birds. Tropical bird physiology. Wildlife observation. Howler monkeys. Wildlife observation. Howler monkeys. Ants. Bats. Birds. Entomology. Assistant to Dr. Carpenter. Fruit flies. Birds. Flycatchers. Howler monkeys. Termite behavior. Reptiles and amphibians. Tropical diseases and study on the opu- linld protozoa of anurans. 174 ANiSrUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1960 Name Worley, Dr. L, G., Brooklyn College, New York. Ziminermaii, John, University of Illinois, Urbana, 111. Principal interest Wildlife observation. Tropical bird physiology. VISITORS Approximately 209 vistors were permitted to visit the island for a day. RAINFALL During the dry season (January through April) of the calendar year 1959, rains of 0.01 inch or more fell during 19 days (34 hours) and amounted to 1.91 inches, as compared to 19.31 inches during 1958. During the wet season of 1959 (May through December), rains of 0.01 inch or more fell on 182 days (691 hours) and amounted to 92.97 inches, as compared to 80.89 inches during 1958. Total rainfall for the year was 94.88 inches. During 35 years of record, the wettest year was 1935 with 143.42 inches, and the driest year was 1930 with only 76.57 inches. March was the driest month of 1959 (0.11 inch) and December the wettest (24.41 inches). The maximum records for short periods were: 5 minutes: 1.30 inches; 10 minutes: 1.65 inches; 1 hour: 4.11 inches; 2 hours: 6.33 inches; 24 hours: 10.87 inches. Table 1. — Annual rainfall, Earro Colorado Island, C.Z. Year Total Inches station average Year Total inches Station average 1925 - 104 37 118.22 116. 36 101. 52 87.84 76.57 123. 30 113. 62 101. 73 122. 42 143. 42 93.88 124. 13 117. 09 115. 47 86. 51 91. 82 111. 10 113. 56 114. 68 111, 35 106. 56 101. 51 104. 69 105. 76 105. 32 107. 04 110. 35 108. 98 110. 12 110. 62 110.94 109. 43 108. 41 108. 55 1943 - - - 120. 29 111.96 120. 42 87.38 77.92 83. 16 114.86 114.51 112. 72 97.68 104. 97 105. 08 114. 42 114. 05 97.97 100. 20 94.88 109. 20 1926 1944 109. 30 1927 1945 109. 84 1928 1940 108. 81 1929... 1947 107. 49 1930 1948 106. 43 1931 1949 106. 76 1932. ._ - .. 1950. .- 107. 07 1933- -_ . 1951 107, 28 1934 1952 106. 94 1935 1953 106. 87 1936 1954 106. 82 1937 1955 107. 09 1938 1956-. 107. 30 1939 1957.- 106. 98 1940 . 1958.-- - - 106. 70 1941 . 1959 106. 48 1942 SECRETARY'S REPORT 175 Table 2. — Comparison of 1958 and 1959 rainfall, Barro Colorado Island {inches) Month Total station average Years of record 1059 excess or defi- ciency Accumu- lated excess 1958 1059 or defi- ciency January 4.26 7.34 2. 98 4.73 12.22 8.89 9.54 12.35 10. 64 15.42 7. 16 4.67 0.32 . 15 . 11 1.33 8.89 8.29 8.86 8.62 14. 69 9.03 10. 18 24.41 2. 15 1. 38 1. 18 2. 97 10.85 10.82 11. 63 12.36 10. 19 13.90 18.21 10.84 34 34 34 35 35 35 35 35 35 35 35 35 - 1. 83 - 1. 23 -1.07 -1. 64 -1. 96 -2. 53 -2. 77 -3. 74 + 4. 60 -4. 87 -8.03 + 13.57 February -- -3. 06 March . . _. -4. 13 April — 5. 77 May . -7. 73 June Julv - 10. 26 - 13. 03 August -16. 77 September October _ -12. 27 -17. 14 November December ^ -25. 17 -11. 60 Year 100. 20 94.88 106. 48 -11. 60 Dry season 19.31 80. 89 1. 91 92. 97 7. 68 98. 80 -5. 77 Wet season -5. 83 BUILDINGS, EQUIPMENT, AND IMPROVEMENTS The most unusual event on Barro Colorado Island during the past 3^ear was a series of landslides on December 7, 1959, after five days of nearly continuous rain. Before the landslides occurred, improvement and expansion of the station facilities were proceeding according to plan: the remodeling of Chapman House had been completed ; new cages and aviaries had been constructed; and plans had been drawn for remodeling tlie laboratory space in the new laboratory building and the living facili- ties in the old laboratory building. Although this progress was inter- rupted by the landslides, fortimately no one was injured and little equipment was destroyed; one major slide and two minor ones oc- curred in the station area itself and numerous others occurred in other parts of the island but the only items damaged beyond repair were two large hygrothermographs and one hygrograph, and one large aviary and pond for water birds. The slides did, however, alter the topogi'aphy of the station area, necessitating the following program of repair and reconstruction: Demolition and re-erection of Barbour House and of one house used as quarters for the laborers. Dredging of the channels leading to the station boat dock. Relocation of several poles supporting electrical cables. 176 ANTSiUAL REPORT SMrTHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1960 Soil-conservation planting of trees and shrubs in the station area and the addition of several new drainage ditches. In addition to repairing the damages from the landslides, both of tlie generators and the launch Snook were partially overhauled and the usual maintenance tasks were continued. OTHER ACTIVITIES The Resident Naturalist continued his research, assisted by David Faircliild II and James Ambrose, on the behavior of several groups of tropical birds and monkeys. The National Science Foundation awarded a grant to the Resident Naturalist for a study of the be- havior of tropical procyonid and mustelid carnivores. The program of internships for graduate students was continued. John H. Kaufmann, of the University of California at Los Angeles, completed research on various aspects of the behavior and ecology of the coatimundi and secured data on some other mammals on both Barro Colorado Island and the mainland. John Ebinger, of Yale University, began to collect botanical specimens and reorganize the station herbarium, which has long been in poor condition, and this reorganization will be an extremely valuable addition to the station facilities. Collection of data for Dr. Charles F. Bennett's study of tempera- ture and humidity gradients in the forest on Barro Colorado Island was completed in December of 19.59. The expansion of the library continued. Work on bringing the catalog up to date, processing new acquisitions, and preparing books for binding is now being undertaken. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The Canal Zone Biological Area can operate only with the excel- lent cooperation of the Canal Zone Government and the Panama Canal Company. Thanks are due especially to the Executive Secre- tary, Paul Runnestrand, and liis staff, the Customs and Immigration officials, and the Police Division. The teclinical advice and assistance provided by P. Alton Wliite, Chief of the Dredging Division, and members of his staff, by C. C. Soper of the Eastman Kodak Co., and by Lt. Boynton and other members of the Signal Corps Meteorologi- cal Team No. 2, were also invaluable. Respectfully submitted. Martin II. Motnuian, Resident Naturalist. Dr. Leonard CARivriciiAEL, Secretary/, Smithsonian Institution. Report on the International Exchange Service Sm : I have the honor to submit the following report on the activities of the International Exchange Service for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1960: The Smithsonian Institution is the official United States agency for the exchange with other nations of governmental, scientific, and literary publications. The International Exchange Service, initiated more than a century ago by the Smithsonian Institution for the inter- change of scientific publications between learned societies and indi- viduals in the United States and those of foreign countries, serves as a means of developing and executing in part the broad and com- prehensive objective, "the difi'usion of knowledge." It was later designated by the United States Government as the agency for the transmission of official documents to selected depositories throughout the world, and it continues to execute the exchanges pursuant to conventions, treaties, and other international agreements. The number of packages of publications received for transmission during the year was 1,141,998, an increase of 12,522 packages over the previous fiscal year. The weight of the packages received was 877,636 pounds, an increase of 110,247 pounds. The average weight of the individual package was 12.29 ounces as compared to the 10.87-ounce average for the fiscal year 1959. Publications were received from approximately 250 domestic sources including United States Government bureaus and departments, congressional committees and members of Congress, imiversities, agri- cultural experiment stations, learned societies, organizations, and individuals for transmission to foreign addressees in more than 150 foreign countries. Publications were received from 59 foreign coun- tries for distribution to addressees in the United States. The publications received from foreign sources for addressees in the United States and from domestic sources for shipment abroad are classified as shown in the following table: 177 178 AJsTSrUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1960 Classification Packages Weight United States parliamentary docu- ments received for transmission abroad Publications received in return for parliamentary documents United States departmental docu- ments received for transmission abroad Publications received in return for departmental documents Miscellaneous scientific and literary publications received for transmis- sion abroad Miscellaneous scientific and literary publications received from abroad for distribution in the United States- Total Grand total Number 672, 565 226, 511 178, 345 1, 077, 421 Number 6,482 4,531 53, 564 Pounds 327, 142 239, 316 202, 324 64, 577 768, 782 Pounds 9,483 11, 167 88, 204 108, 854 1, 141, 998 877, 636 The packages of publications are forwarded to the exchange bu- reaus of foreign countries by freight or, where shipment by such means is impractical, to the foreign addressees by direct mail. Dis- tribution in the United States of the publications received through the foreign exchange bureaus is accomplished primarily by mail, but by other means when more economical. The number of cases shipped to the foreign exchange bureaus was 3,449, or 609 more than for the previous year. Of these cases 993 were for depositories of full sets of United States Government documents, these publications being furnished in exchange for the official publications of foreign govern- ments which are received for deposit in the Library of Congress. The total weight of the packages transmitted during the year amounted to 870,784 pounds, which was 86,213 pounds more than was transmitted in the previous fiscal year. There was allocated to the International Exchange Service for ocean and domestic freight $35,- 052.54. With this amount it was possible to effect the shipment of 575,163 pounds. The weight of packages forwarded by mail and by means other than freight was 295,621 pounds. Approximately 8,427 poimds of the full sets of United States Government documents accumulated during the year because the Library of Congress had re- quested suspension of shipment to certain foreign depositories. During the year, there was an increase of 10 percent in ocean freight rates. The transportation cost for hauling books and periodicals to the Baltimore piers remained at the 1959 level. SECRETARY'S REPORT 179 Shipments are made to Taiwan. No shipments are made to the mainland of China, North Korea, and Communist-controlled areas of Viet-Nam. FOREIGN DEPOSITORIES OF GOVERNMENTAL DOCUMENTS The nmnber of sets of U.S. official publications received by the Exchange Service for transmission abroad in return for the official publications sent by foreign governments for deposit in the Library of Congress is now 106 (62 full and 44 partial sets), listed below. Changes that occurred during the year are shown in the footnotes. DEPOSITORIES OF FULL SETS Akoentina : DlvisiOn Biblioteca, Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores y Culto, Buenos Aires. AusTRAiJA : Commonwealth National Library, Canberra. New South Wai^s : Public Library of New South Wales, Sydney. Queensland: Parliamentary Library, Brisbane. South Australla. : Public Library of South Australia, Adelaide. Tasmania : Parliamentary Library, Hobart. Victoria : Public Library of Victoria, Melbourne. Westebn Australia : State Library, Perth. AusTiiiA : Administrative library. Federal Chancellery, Vienna. Brazil : Biblioteca Nacional, Rio de Janeiro. Bulgaria : Bulgarian Bibliographical Institute, Sofia.^ Burma : Government Book Depot, Rangoon. Canada : Library of Parliament, Ottawa. Manitoba : Provincial Library, Winnipeg. Ontario : Legislative Library, Toronto. Quebec : Library of the Legislature of the Province of Quebec. Cetlon : Department of Information, Government of Ceylon, Colombo. Chile : Biblioteca Nacional, Santiago. China : National Central Library, Taipei, Taiwan. National Chengchl University, Taipei, Taiwan. Colombia : Biblioteca Nacional, Bogotfi. Costa Rica : Biblioteca Nacional, San Jos6. Cuba : Ministerio de Estado, Canje Internacional, Habana. Czechoslovakia : University Library, Prague. Denmark : Institnt Danois des Changes Intemationaux, Copenhagen, Egypt : Bureau des Publications, Minist^re des Finances, Cairo. Finland : Parliamentary Library, Helsinki. France : BibliothSque Nationale, Paris. Germany : Deutsche Staatsbibllothek, Berlin. Free University of Berlin, Berlin-Dahlem. Parliamentary Library, Bonn. Great Britain : England : British Museum, London. IjONdon : London School of Economics and Political Science. (Depository of the London County Council.) Hungary : Library of Parliament, Budapest.* • Shipment snspendwJ. 180 AJJNITAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1960 India : National Library, Calcutta, Central Secretariat Library, New Delhi. Parliament Library, New Delhi. Indonesia : Ministry for Foreign Affairs, Djakarta. Ireland : National Library of Ireland, Dublin. Israel : State Archives and Library, Hakirya, Jerusalem. Italy : Ministero deUa Pubblica Istruzlone, Rome. Japan : National Diet Library, Tokyo.' Mexico : Secretarfa de Relaciones Exteriores, Department© de Inf ormacifin para el Extranjero Mexico, D.F. Netherlands : Royal Library, The Hague. New Zealand : General Assembly Library, Wellington. Norway : Utenriksdepartmentets Bibliothek, Oslo. Peru: Secci6n de Propaganda y Publicaciones, Ministerio de Relaciones Ex- teriores, Lima. Philippines : Bureau of Public Libraries, Department of Education, Manila. Poland : Bibliothgque Nationale, Warsaw.^ Portugal: Biblioteca Nacional, Lisbon. Spain : Biblioteca Nacional, Madrid. Sweden : Kungliga Biblioteket, Stockholm. Switzerland : Biblioth^que Centrale F^d^rale, Beme. Turkey : National Library, Ankara. Union of South Africa : State Library, Pretoria, Transvaal. Union of Soviet Socialist Repubuos : All-Union Lenin Library, Moscow. United Nations : Library of the United Nations, Geneva, Switzerland. Uruguay: Oflcina de Canje Internacional de Publicaciones, Montevideo. Venezuela : Biblioteca Nacional, Caracas. Yugoslavia : Bibliograf ski Institut, Belgrade.* depositories or partial sets Afghanistan : Library of the Afghan Academy, KaboL Beilgium : Biblioth^que Royale, Bruxelles.* Bolivia : Biblioteca del Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores y Culto, La Paz. Brazil : Minas Gebxas : Departmento Estadul de Estatistica, Belo Horlzonte. British Guiana: Government Secretary's OfBce, Georgetown, Demerara. Canada : Alberta : Provincial Library, Edmonton. British Columbia : Provincial Library, Victoria. New Brunswick : Legislative Library, Fredericton. NE^iVFOUNDLAND : Department of Provincial Affairs, St. John's. Nova Sootia : Provincial Secretary of Nova Scotia, Halifax. Saskatchewan : Legislative Library, Regina. Dominican Republio : Biblioteca de la Unlversidad de Santo Domingo, Ciudad Trujillo. Ecuador : Biblioteca Nacional, Quito. El SAI.VADOR : Biblioteca Nacional, San Salvador. Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores, San Salvador. Greece : National Library, Athens. Guatemala : Biblioteca Nacional, Guatemala. • Korelvos two sotn. • Chiinped from a full to a partial set. SECRETARY'S REPORT 181 Haiti : Biblioth&que Nationale, Port-au-Prince. Honduras : Biblioteca Nacional, Tegucigalpa. Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores, Tegucigalpa. Iceland : National Library, Reykjavik. India : Bombay : Secretary to the Government, Bombay. BiHAB : Revenue Department, Patna. Kerala : Kerala Legislature Secretariat, Trivaudrum.* Uttab Pradesh : University of Allahabad, Allahabad. Secretariat Library, Lucknow. West Bengal: Library, West Bengal Legislative Secretariat, Assembly House, Calcutta. Iran : Imperial Ministry of Education, Tehran, Iraq : Public Library, Baghdad. Jamaica : Colonial Secretary, Kingston. University College of the West Indies, St. Andrew. Lebanon : American University of Beirut, Beirut, Liberia : Department of State, Monrovia. Malaya : Federal Secretariat, Federation of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur. Malta : Minister for the Treasury, Valletta. Nicaragua : Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores, Managua. Pakistan : Central Secretariat Library, Karachi. Panama : Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores, Panamd, Paraguay : Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores, Secci6n Biblioteca, Asunci6n. Philippines : House of Representatives, Manila. Scotland : National Library of Scotland, Edinburgh. SiAM : National Library, Bangkok. Singapoee : Chief Secretary, Government Offices, Singapore. Sudan : Gordon Memorial College, Khartoum. INTERPARLIAMENTARY EXCHANGE OF THE OFnCIAL JOURNAL There are now being sent abroad 87 copies of the Federal Register and 97 copies of the Congressional Record. This is an increase over the preceding year of two copies of the Federal Register and of two copies of the CongTessional Record. The countries to which these journals are bemg forwarded are given in the following list : depositories of congressional record and federal register Argentina : Biblioteca de la H, Legislatura de Mendoza, Mendoza," Biblioteca del Poder Judicial, Mendoza.* Boletin Oficial de la Reptiblica Argentina, Miolsterio de Justica e Instruc- ci6n Ptiblica, Buenos Aires. Oimara de Diputados Oficina de Inf ormaci6u Parlamentaria, Buenos Aires. * Added during the year. ■ CongreBsional Record only. " Federal Register only. 182 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1960 Australia : Commonwealth National Library, Canberra. New South Wales : Library of Parliament of New South Wales, Sydney. Queensland : Chief Secretary's Office, Brisbane. Victoria: Public Library of Victoria, Melbourne.' Western Australia : Library of Parliament of Western Australia, Perth. Bbazii. : Secretaria de Presidencia, Rio de .Janeiro.'* British Honduras : Colonial Secretary, Belize. Cambodia : Ministry of Information, Phnom Penh.* Canada : Clerk of the Senate, Houses of Parliament, Ottawa. Library of Parliament, Ottawa. Cetlon : Ceylon Ministry of Defense and External Affairs, Colombo.' CniLH : Biblioteca del Congreso Nacional, Santiago.' China : Legislative Yuan, Taipei, Taiwan.' Taiwan Provincial Government, Taipei, Taiwan. Cuba; Biblioteca del Capitolio, Habana. Biblioteca PQblica Panamericaua, Habana.* Czechoslovakia : Ceskoslovenska Akademie Ved, Prague.' Egypt : Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Egyptian Government, Cairo.' France : P.ibliothfique Assembl6e Nationale, Paris. Bibllothfeque Conseil de la R^publique, Paris. Library, Organization for European Economic Cooperation, Paris.' Research Department, Council of Europe, Strasbourg.' Service de la Documentation £trang6re, Assembl6e Nationale, Paris.* Geemany : Amerika Institut der Universitilt Milnchen, Miinchen.' Archiv, Deutscher Bundestag, Bonn. Bibliothek der Instituts fiir Weltwirtschaft an der Universtat Kiel, Kiel- Wik. Bibliothek Hessischer Landtag, Wiesbaden.' Der Bayrlsche Landtag, Munich." ' Deutschea Institut fiir Rechtswissenschaft, Potsdam-Babelsberg II.' Deutscher Buudesrat, Bonn." Deutscher Bundestag, Bonn.' Hamburgisches Welt-Wirtschafts-Archiv, Hamburg. Ghana : Chief Secretary's Office, Accra.' Great Britain : Department of Printed Books, British Museum, London. House of Commons Library, London.' N.P.P. Warehouse, H.M. Stationery Office, London." Printed Library of the Foreign Office, London. Royal Institute of International Affairs, London,' Greece : Biblioth6que, Chambre des D6putt% HellSnIque, Athens. Guatemala : Biblioteca de la Asamblea Legislativa, Guatemala. ' Three copies, • Two eoplea. SECRETARY'S REPORT ; , 1S3 Haiti: Bibliothdque Nationale, Port-au-Priuce. HoNDUiiAs : Biblioteca del Congreso Nacional, Tegucigalpa. HuNQAijY : National Library, Budapest. India: Civil Secretariat Library, Lueknow, United Provinces.' Indian Council of World Affairs, New Delhi." Jainniu and Kasbmir Constituent Assembly, Srinagar." Legislative Assembly, Government of Assam, Shillong." Legislative Assembly Library, Luclinow, United Provinces. Kerala Legislature Secretariat, Trivandrum.^ Madras State Legislature, Madras." Parliament Library, New Delhi. Servants of Indian Society, Poona." Ireland : Dail Eireann, Dublin. IsKAEL : Library of the Knesset, Jerusalem. Italy : Biblioteca Camera del Deputati, Rome. Bibloteca del Seuato della Republica, Rome. International Institute for the Unification of Private Law, Rome.' Periodicals Unit, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome.' Japan : Library of the National Diet, Tokyo. Ministry of Finance, Tokyo. Jordan : Parliament of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan, Amman.' Koi4Ea: Library, National Assembly, Seoul. LtJXEMBOUKG : Assembl(5e Commune de la C.E.C.A., Luxembourg. Mexico : DlreccI6n, General Information, Secretaria de GobernaciOn, Mexico, D.F. Biblioteca Benjamin Fi-anklin, Mexico, D.F. Aguascalientes : Gobernador del Estado de Aguascalientes, Aguascalientes. Baja California : Gobernador del Distrito Norte, Mexican. Campecue: Gobernador del Estado de Campeche, Campeche. Chiapas: Gobernador del Estado de Chiapas, Tuxtla GuitiSrrez. Chichuahua : Gobernador del Estado de Chihuahua, Chihuahua. Coahuila: Peri6dico Ofleial del Estado de Coahuila, Palacio de Gobierno, SaltlUo. CoLiMA : Gobernador del Estado de Colima, Colima. Guanajuato: Secretaria General de Gobierno del Estado, Guanajuato.' Jalisco : Biblioteca del Estado, Guadalajara. MEXICO : Gaceta del Gobierno, Toluca. MicnoAclN : Secretaria General de Gobierno del Estado de MIochoacdn, Morelia. JIoRELOS : Pa'acio de Gobierno, Cuernavaca. Nataeit : Gobernador de Nayarit, Tepic. NuEivo IiE6N : Biblioteca del Estado, Monterrey. Oaxaca: Peri6dico Oficial, Palacio de Gobierno, Oaxaca.* PuEBLA : Secretaria General de Gobierno, Puebla. Quek£;taro: Secretaria General de Gobierno, Secci6n de Archive, Quer^taro. SiNALOA : Gobernador del Estado de Sinaloa, Culiacfin. 579421—61 15 184 AIINTJAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1960 Mexico — Continued SoNORA : Gobemador del Estado de Sonora, Hermosillo. Tamaui^ipas : Secretarfa General de Gobierno, Victoria. Vebaoruz: Gobemador del Estado de Veracruz, Departamento de Gober- naci6n j Justica, Jalapa. YucatAn : Gobemador del Estado de Yueatfin, M^rida. Netheelands : Koninklijke Bibliotheek, The Hague.* New Zealand : General Assembly Library, Wellington. Norway : Library of the Norwegian Parliament, Oslo. Panama : Biblioteca Nacional, Panama City." Phiuppines : House of Representatives, Manila. Poland: Kancelaria Rady, Panstwa, Biblioteka Sejmova, Warsaw. Portuguese Timor: Repartigao Central de Administragao Civil, Dili.* Rhodesia and Ntasaland : Federal Assembly, Salisbury.* Rumania : Biblioteca Centrala de Stat RPR, Bucharest. Spain : Boletin Oficial del Estado, Presidencia del (Jobiemo, Madrid.' Switzerland: Bibliothfeque, Bureau International du Travail, Geneva.* International Labor OflBce, Geneva.* * Library, United Nations, Geneva. Togo: Ministere d'Etat, de I'lnterieur, de I'lnformation et de la Presse, Lome.* Union of South Africa : Cape of Good Hope : Library of Parliament, Cape Town. Transvaal : State Library, Pretoria. Union of Soviet Socialist REa>uBLics : Fundamental'niia Biblioteka Obscbest- vennykh Nauk, Moscow. Uruguay : Diario Oficial, Calle Florida 1178, Montevideo. Yugoslavia : Bibliograf ski Institut FNRJ, Belgrade.* FOREIGN EXCHANGE SERVICES Exchange publications for addressees in the countries listed below are forwarded by freight to the exchange services of those countries. Exchange publications for addressees in other countries are forwarded directly by mail. LIST of exchange SERVICES Austria : Austrian National Library, Vienna. Bei^ium : Service des ^changes Intemationaux, Bibliothfique Royale de Bel- gique, Bruxelles. China : National Central Library, Taipei, Taiwan. Czechoslovakia: Bureau of International Exchanges, University Library, Prague. Denmark: Institut Danois des ^changes Intemationaux, Biblioth&que Royale, Copenhagen. Egypt : Government Press, Publications Office, Bulaq, Cairo. Finland : Delegation of the Scientific Societies, HelsInkL France: Service des ^changes Intemationaux, Biblioth^que Nationale, Paris. Germany (Eastern) : Deutsche Staatsbibliothek, Berlin. Germany (Western) : Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft, Bad Godesberg. SECRETARY'S REPORT 185 Hungary : National Library, Sz6ch^nyi, Budapest. India : Government Printing and Stationery, Bombay. Indonesia : Minister of Educaiton, Djakarta. Israel : Jewish National and University Library, Jerusalem. Italy : UfiBcio degli Scambi Internazionali, Ministero della Pubblica Istruzione, Rome. Japan : Division for Interlibrary Services, National Diet Library, Tokyo. Korea : Korean Library Association, Seoul. Netherlands : International Exchange Bureau of the Netherlands, Royal Li- brary, The Hague. New South Wales : Public Library of New South Wales, Sydney. Neivv Zealand : General Assembly Library, Wellington. Norway: Service Norv^gien des iSchanges Internationaux, Bibliothfeque de rUniversit6 Royale, Oslo. Philippines : Bureau of Public Libraries, Department of Education, Manila, Poland : Service Polonais des ^changes Internationaux, BibliothSque Nationale, Warsaw. Portugal : Secgao de Trocas Internacionais, Biblioteca Nacional, Lisbon. Queensland: Bureau of International Exchange of Publications, Chief Secre- tary's Office, Brisbane. Rumania: International Exchange Service, Biblioteca Centrala de Stat, Bu- charest. South Australia: South Australian Government Exchanges Bureau, Govern- ment Printing and Stationery Office, Adelaide. Spain : Junta de Intercambio y AdquisiciOn de Libros y Revistas para Bibliote- cas Publicas, Ministerio de EducaciSn Nacional, Madrid. Sweden : Kungliga Biblioteket, Stockholm. Switzerland: Service Suisse des ^changes Internationaux, Biblioth&que Cen- trale F6d6rale, Palais F^ddral, Berne. Tasmania : Secretary of the Premier, Hobart. Turkey : National Library, Ankara. Union of South Africa: Government Printing and Stationery Office, Cape Town. Union of Soviet Socialist Republics : Bureau of Book Exchange, State Lenin Library, Moscow. Victoria: Public Library of Victoria, Melbourne. Western Australia : State Library, Perth. Yugoslavia : BibliografskI Institut FNRJ, Belgrade. Respectfully submitted. J. A. Collins, Chief. Dr. Leonard Carmichael, Secretary^ Smithsonian Institution. Report on the National Gallery of Art Sir : I have the honor to submit, on behalf of the Board of Trustees, the twenty-third annual report of the National Gallery of Art, for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1960. This report is made pursuant to the provisions of section 5(d) of Public Eesolution No. 14, Seventy- fifth Congress, first session, approved March 24, 1937 (50 Stat. 51). ORGANIZATION The statutory members of the Board of Trustees of the National Gallery of Art are the Chief Justice of the United States, the Secretary of State, the Secretary of the Treasury, and the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, ex officio. The five general trustees con- tinuing in office during the fiscal year ended June 30, 1960, were Duncan Phillips, Ferdinand Lammot Belin, Chester Dale, Paul Mellon, and Rush H. Kress. On May 5, 1960, Chester Dale was reelected by the Board of Trustees to serve as President of the Gallery and Ferdi- nand Lammot Belin was reelected Vice President. The executive officers of the Gallery as of June 30, 1960, are as follows : Huntington Cairns, Secretary-Treas- Ernest R. Feidler, Administrator. urer. Huntington Cairns, General Counsel. John Walker, Director. Perry E. Cott, Cliief Curator. The three standing committees of the Board, as constituted at the annual meeting on May 5, 1960, were as follows : EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE Chief Justice of the United States, Earl Secretary of the Smithsonian Institu- Warren, Chairman. tlon, Leonard Carmichael. Ferdinand Lammot BeUn. Paul Mellon. Chester Dale, Vice Chairman. FINANCE COMMITTEE Secretary of the Treasury, Robert B. Secretary of the Smithsonian Institu- Anderson, Chairman. tion, Leonard Carmichael. Ferdinand Lammot Belin, Paul Mellon. Chester Dale, Vice Chairman. ACQUISITIONS COMMITTEE Ferdinand Lammot Belin, Chairman. Paul Mellon. Duncan Phillips. John Walker. Chester Dale. 186 SECRETARY'S REPORT 187 PERSONNEL On June 30, 1960, full-time Government employees on the staff of tlie National Gallery of Art numbered 314 as compared with 299 employees as of June 30, 1959. The U.S. Civil Service regulations govern the appointment of employees paid from appropriated public funds. A number of employees were given training mider the provisions of the Government Employees Training Act. APPROPRIATIONS For the fiscal year ended Jmie 30, 1960, the CongTess of the United States in the regular annual appropriation for the National Gallery of Art provided $1,834,000 to be used for salaries and expenses in the operation and upkeep of the Gallery, the protection and care of works of art acquired by the Board of Tiustees, and all administrative ex- penses incident thereto, as authorized by Joint Resolution of Congress approved March 24, 1937 (20 U.S.C. 71-75 ; 50 Stat. 51) . The following expenditures and encumbrances were incurred : Personal services $1, 451, 909. 94 Other than personal services 381,879.06 Unobligated balance 211. 00 Total 1, 834, 000. 00 ATTENDANCE There were 965,190 visitors to the Gallery during the fiscal year 1960, an increase of 13,582 over the total attendance of 951,608 for the fiscal year 1959. The average daily number of visitors was 2,659. ACCESSIONS There were 620 accessions by the National Gallery of xirt as gifts, loans, or deposits during the fiscal year. GIFTS During the year the following gifts or bequests were accepted by the Board of Trustees : PAINTINGS DonoT Artist TitU Mrs. Cooper R. Drewry Eichholtz The Ragan Sisters. Henry Prather Fletcher Savage, attr. to George Washington. Col. and Mrs. Edgar W. Joshua Johnston The Westwood Children. Garbisch. Do :. Stock The Wilcox Children. Do Unknown Jonathan Benham. Do do Baby in Blue Cradle Do do. Lady in White. 188 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1960 JDonor Artitt Title Col. and Mrs. Edgar W. Unknown Boy in Blue Coat, Garbisch. Do do Child with Rocking Horse. Do do Leaving the Manor House. Do do Five Children of the Budd Family. Do do Civil War Battle Scene. Do do Little Girl and the Cat. Do do Profile Portrait of a Lady in White. Rupert L. Joseph Ruisdael Park with a Country House. Mrs. Eleanor Lothrop and Copley Colonel Fitch and His Sisters Gordon Abbott. National Gallery of Art West The Battle of La Hogue. Purchase Fund — Andrew W. Mellon Gift. Mrs. Lillian S. Timken Bellini, attr. to Portrait of a Man. Do Boucher Diana and Endymion. Do Boucher The Love Letter. Do Corot St. Sebastian Succored by Holy Women. Do Correggio, attr. to-. Madonna and Child with the Infant St. John. Do Cotes Portrait of a Lady. Do Cotes Portrait of a Lady. Do Dou The Hermit. Do Drouais Madame du Barry. Do Dutch School, after The Concert. Ter Borch. Do Flemish School, Twelve Apostles. Manner of Van Dyck. Do Fragonard The Happy Family. Do French School Young Woman and Man. Do French School, after Ffite Champfitre. Pater. Do French School, Divertissement. XVIII Century. Do Fry Egyptian Temple. Do Fry Flock of Sheep. Do Fry Shepherd and Sheep. Do -- Greuze Girl with Birds. Do Greuze Girl with Folded Arms. Do After Van Dyck Children of Oliver St. John, Earl of Bolingbroke. Do Henner Reclining Nude. Do._ Herring Horses. Do Italian School Head of a Woman. Do Italian School The Adoration of the Shep- herds. Do Lely Barbara Villiers, Duchess of Cleveland. SECRETARY'S REPORT 189 Donor Artist Mrs. Lillian S. Timken Moroni Do Nattier Do NeefiFs Do Portuguese School. . Do Romney Do Rubens, School of . . Do Rubens, School of _ . Do Russian School Do Russian School Do Tiepolo Do Marco Tintoretto.. Do Titian, attr. to Do Titian, attr. to Do Turner Do Vig6e-Lebrun, attr. to Do Wilkie TUk Gian Federigo Madruzzo. Portrait of a Lady. Antwerp Cathedral. Four-Panel Screen. Sir Archibald Campbell. St. Peter. Peter Paul Rubens. The Crucifixion. Christ Blessing. Bacchus and Ariadne. PietA. Group Portrait. Self-Portrait. The Evening of the Deluge. Marie- Antoine tte . Camping Gypsies. An American Soldier. Mercury. America. SCULPTURE Rupert L. Joseph Epstein National Gallery of Art Pur- Italian, XVI chase Fund — Andrew W. Century. Mellon Gift. DECORATIVE ARTS James Hazen Hyde Seventeenth-Cen- tury Tapestry. GRAPHIC ARTS During the year Lessing J. Rosen wald increased his gift to the Gallery by 77 additional prints and drawings. A drawing by Bellows, "Three Figures in a Surrey," was given to the Gallery by Mrs. Andrew G. Carey, and a print by DeLaunay, after Fragonard, entitled "Les Voeux Acceptes" was purchased by the Gallery with funds derived from the Print Purchase Fund. OTHER GIFTS During the fiscal year 1960 gifts of money were made by The A. W. Mellon Educational and Charitable Trust, Old Dominion Foundation, Avalon Foundation, Mrs. E, C. Chadbourne, George M. and Pamela S. Humphrey Fund, and the Five Towns Foundation. EXCHANGE OF WORK OF ART In exchange for a print by Israhel van Meckenem entitled "The Annunciation," Lessing J. Rosenwald gave the National Gallery of Art a superior impression of the same print. 190 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1960 WORKS OF ART ON LOAN The following works of art were received on loan by the Gallery : From AHisl Tide Robert Woods Bliss, Wash- 16 objects of Pre-Columbian ington, D.C. Art. Mrs. Mellon Bruce, New Pissarro Spring at Louveciennes. York, N.Y. Chester Dale, New York, Bellows Blue Morning. N.Y. Do Monet The Seine at Giverny. Col. and Mrs. Edgar W. Polk John Hart. Garbisch, New York, N.Y. Do do Mrs. John Hart and Daughter. Do Unknown Adeline Harwood. Do do Quail. Do do Five Master. Eugene and Agnes Mej'er, Cezanne Vase of Flowers. Washington, D.C. Do do Portrait of a Sailor. Do do Le Chateau Noir. Do do Still Life. Do Manet Do. Do Renoir Man Lying on Sofa. Do do Nude. Do Dufresne Still Life. WORKS OF ART ON LOAN RETURNED The following works of art on loan were returned during the fiscal year: To Ariiit Title Robert Woods Bliss, Wash- 8 objects of Pre-Columbian ington, D.C. art. Chester Dale, New York, Bellows Blue Morning. N.Y. Do Monet The Seine at Giverny. Col. and Mrs. Edgar W. Hayes Bare Knuckles. G;u-bisch, New York, N.Y. Do J. Thomas The Ship Nancy Homeward Bound. Do Unknown Miss Dennison. Do do Suzanne Truax. Do do TheCat. Do do Twin Sisters. Do do Leaving the Manor House. The Calouste Gulbenkian 41 paintings, 36 pieces of Foundation, Lisbon, For- sculpture, 10 works of tugal. graphic art, and 8 objects of decorative art. SECRETARY'S REPORT 191 To Artiit Title Miss Emily Crawford John- Vanderlyu President James Monroe. son, Frederick, Md. Samuel H. Kress Founda- Andrea del Sarto Charity. tion New York, N.Y. Eugene and Agnes Meyer, Cezanne Vase of Flov/ers. Washington, D.C. Do do Portrait of a Sailor. Do do Le Chateau Noir. Do - do StillLife. Do Dufresne Do. Do Manet Do. Do Renoir Man Lying on Sofa. Do do Nude. Mr. and Mrs. Carleton C6zanne Man with Crossed Arms. Mitchell, Annapolis, Md. Do VanGogh The Stevedores. Robert H. Thayer, New Copley Harrison Gray. York, N.Y. Do do Elizabeth Gray Otis. Do_ Stuart Samuel Alleyne Otis. WORKS OF ART LENT During the fiscal year the Gallery lent the following works of art for exliibition purposes : To Artist Title American Federation of Bundy Vermont Lawyer. Arts, New York, N.Y. Do Unknown Mahantango Valley Farm. Corcoran Gallery of Art, Eichholtz The Ragan Sisters. Washington, D.C. Do Harding Charles Carroll of Carroll- ton. Do Joshua Johnston The Westwood Children. Do Stuart William Thornton. Do Stuart Mrs. William Thornton. Do Sully Governor Charles Ridgely of Maryland. Do. Unknown The End of the Hunt. Daughters of the American Pine General William Smallwood. Revolution, Washington, D.C. Newark Museum, Newark, Boucher T6te-a-T6te (drawing). N.J. Smithsonian Institution, The Presidents' J'an. Political History Divi- sion, Washington, D.C. Woodlawn Plantation, Mt. Polk General Washington at Vernon, Va. Princeton. 192 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1960 EXHIBITIONS The following exhibitions were held at the National Gallery of Art during the fiscal year 1960 : Etchings and Mezzotints from Turner's Liber Studiorum. Gift of Miss Ellen T. BuUard and from the Rosenwald Collection. Continued from previous fiscal year. June 25, 1959, to November 8, 1959. Exhibition of recent accessions : The Tragedian by Manet and two paintings by Whistler, Self-Portrait and Oeorge W. VanderMlt. September 6, 1959, through October 5, 1959. American Prints Today — 1959. Exhibition of 62 etchings, engravings, wood- cuts, lithographs, and serigraphs, done by American artists between Janu- ary 1956 and December 1958; September 15, 1959, through October 18, 1959. Christmas Prints. From the Rosenwald Collection. December 14, 1959, to January 11, 1960. Prints by Toulouse-Lautrec. November 9, 1959, through December 13, 1959. Reinstalled January 12, 1960, to continue into the next fiscal year. Haniwa — Japanese Burial Mound Figures. Lent by the Japanese Government. January 10, 1960, through February 21, 1960. Honors Daumier. Sculpture, drawings, and lithographs by Honor6 Daumier from the Rosenwald Collection. March 12, 1960, through June 26, 1960. TRAVELING EXHIBITIONS Rosenwald Collection. — Special exhibitions of prints and drawings from the Rosenwald Collection were circulated during the fiscal year to 28 museums, universities, schools, and art centers in the United States, In addition three exhibitions were sent to the Haus der Kunst, Munich, Gennany ; Belvedere Museum, Vienna, Austria ; and the Oesterreichische Galerie, Vienna, Austria. Index of American Design. — During the fiscal year 1960, 19 trav- eling exhibitions ("988 plates) with 26 bookings were circulated to Brazil, Germany, Pakistan, and 14 States in the United States. CURATORIAL ACTIVITIES Under the direction of Dr. Perry B. Cott, chief curator, the cura- torial department accessioned 143 gifts to the Gallery during the fiscal year 1960. Advice was given regarding 561 works of art brought to the Gallery for expert opinion and 27 visits to collections were made by members of the staff in connection with offers of gifts. About 3,100 inquiries, many of them requiring research, were answered verbally and by letter. Miss Elizabeth Mongan, curator of graphic arts, served on the board of directors of the Print Council of America again this year. She lectured on Graphic Arts at the Norfolk Museum of Art, Currier Art Gallery, Fogg Art Museum, Louisiana State University, and Bryn Mawr College. SECRETARY'S REPORT 193 Dr. H. Lester Cooke, museum curator, was awarded a U.S. Gov- ernment grant under the International Exchange Program and lec- tured in Italy from November 1959 to April 1960. William P. Campbell, curator of painting, assisted at the judging of the Navy Department Art exhibition. John Pancoast, registrar, assisted at the judging of the exhibition for the Military District of Washington. Dr. Katharine Shepard, assistant curator of graphic arts, served again as secretary of the Washington Society of the Archaeological Institute of America. She also was an official delegate to the general meeting of the Archaeological Institute in New York City, December 1959. The Kichter Arcliives received and cataloged over 260 photographs on exchange from museums here and abroad ; 916 photographs were purchased, and about 10,000 reproductions clipped from magazines and catalogs were added to the Eichter Archives. RESTORATION Francis Sullivan, resident restorer of the Gallery, made regular and systematic inspection of all works of art in the Gallery, and periodically removed dust and bloom as required. He relined 15 paintings and gave special treatment to 40. Twenty-eight paintings were X-rayed as an aid in research. Experiments were continued with the application of 27II and other synthetic varnishes developed by the National Gallery of Art Fellowship at the Mellon Institute of Industrial Research, Pittsburgh, Pa. Proofs of all color reproduc- tions of Gallery paintings were checked and approved, and teclmical advice on the conservation of paintings was furnished to the public upon request. Mr. Sullivan inspected all Gallery paintings on loan in Govern- ment buildings in Washington. He also gave ad^dce on and special treatment to works of art belonging to other Government agencies including the White House, the Freer Gallery of Art, and the Smithsonian Institution. PUBLICATIONS Dr. Perry B. Cott, chief curator, contributed an article entitled "The National Gallery of Art in Washington" to Westermanns Monatshefte, February 1960. Dr. Fern Rusk Shapley, assistant chief curator, contributed an article entitled "A Note on 'The Three Philosophers' by Giorgione," to The Art Quarterly, Autumn, 1959. She also wrote two booklets entitled "Early Italian Painting" and "Later Italian Paintings" pub- lished by the National Gallery of Art. 194 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 19 60 Jolin Pancoast, registrar, wrote a review for The ATnerican Scholar^ Winter, 1960. Dr. H. Lester Cooke, museum curator, wrote two articles on Ameri- can Art for Amerika, and the texts for 10 jBlmstrips on "History of Art" published by Encyclopaedia Britannica Films, Inc. He also wrote two booklets entitled "British Painting" and "French Painting of the 16th-18th Centuries." Thomas P. Baird, museum curator, wrote the booklet entitled "Dutch Painting." During the fiscal year 1960 the Publications Fund published 8 of what will be a series of 10 booklets on the schools of painting in the Gallery collection, each with 16 color plates and text by a staff member. These paperbound booklets, priced at 25 cents, are in- tended to give the general public an introduction to art history as represented in the Gallery's collection. One new catalog entitled "Paintings and Sculpture from the Kress Collection" was produced. The fifth annual series of the A. W. Mellon Lectures in the Fine Arts, "Art and Illusion," by E. H. Gombrich, published in book form, was placed on sale, as were two books written by staff members : "Benjamin West and the Taste of His Times," by Grose Evans, and "The History of Western Art," by Dr. Erwin O. Christensen. Two new color postcards were made, as well as seven new Christmas- card subjects in color and three in black-and-white. The Publications Fund took over distribution of the slidestrips, filmstrips, and recordings previously sold by the Educational Depart- ment and revised editions of most of these publications were produced during the year. Five sets of color slides issued by the Audubon Society reproducing Audubon prints in the Gallery collection were made available in the Information Rooms. The growth of sales activities is indicated by the fact that 200,486 persons in fiscal year 1960 made purchases in the Gallery's Informa- tion Rooms, compared with 184,254 in fiscal year 1959. EDUCATIONAL PROGRAM The program of the Educational Office was carried out under the supervision of Dr. Raymond S. Stites, curator in charge of educa- tional work. The staff lectured and conducted tours in the Gallery on the works of art in its collection. The attendance for the General Tours, Tours of the Week, and Picture of the Week talks, totaled 40,607 persons, and that of the auditorium lectures on Sunday afternoons totaled 13,005 persons. Appointments were arranged for 313 special lectures, tours, and conferences. A total of 10,418 persons was served in this manner. These included groups from Government Agencies, the Armed Forces, SECRETARY'S REPORT 195 foreign students, religious organizations, Girl Scouts, 4-H Clubs, conventions, and local chapters of women's organizations. The program of training volunteer docents continued, and during the fiscal year 1960 special instruction was given to 100 volunteers. By special arrangement with the school systems of the District of Columbia and surromiding counties of Maryland and Virginia these volunteers conducted tours for 1,266 classes with a total of 46,584 children, an increase of 6,229 children visiting the National Gallery of Art. The staff of the Educational Office delivered six lectures in the auditorium on Sunday afternoons and 30 lectures were given by guest speakers. Wilmarth Sheldon Lewis delivered the Ninth Annual Series of the A. W. Mellon Lectures in the Fine Arts, beginning on February 21, for six consecutive Sundays. His subject was Horace Walpole. The Educational Office now has 10 sets of traveling exhibitions and an exhibition publicizing teachers' aids offered by the department. These are lent free of charge except for transportation costs to schools, clubs, libraries, and universities throughout the country. The ex- hibitions were circulated to 42 such places with an estimated total of 20,000 persons viewing them. Fifteen copies of the film "Your National Galleiy of Art" were on permanent loan in distributiton centers ; three copies of the new film "Art in the Western World" were circulated through the Educational Office to 44 borrowei^3. This latter film is sold through Encyclopaedia Britannica Films, Inc. A few copies of a film, made from a television show, entitled "Time Enough To See a World" have been deposited in the Educational Office. The slide library has a total of 40,624 slides in the permanent and lending collections. During the year 3,018 slides were added to the collection; 1,118 borrowers used 41,601 slides from the lending col- lection. A number of slide lectures consisting of color slides and a lecture text are available to schools, clubs, and churches on a loan basis. Members of the staff participated in outside lectures, and taught night classes in the local universities. Four new slide lectures were completed, and illustrated booklets on three schools of painting repre- sented in the National Galleiy of Ait. were completed by the staff members. A printed calendar of events announcing the Gallery's activities and publications was prepared by the Educational Office and dis- tributed monthly to a mailing list of 7,200 names. The staff members prepared and delivered 16 new 10-minute talks over radio station WGMS during the intermissions of the Sunday evening concert broadcasts. 196 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1960 LIBRARY Important contributions to the library recorded by Miss Ruth E. Carlson, librarian, and her staff included 398 books, pamphlets, peri- odicals, and subscriptions, and a group of 916 photographs, purchased from private funds. Government funds were used for the purchase of 12 books and 26 periodicals and for the binding of 177 volumes of peri- odicals. Gifts to the library included 665 books and pamphlets ; 993 books, pamphlets, periodicals, and bulletins were received through ex- change arrangements or as complimentary copies from institutions. The library cataloged and classified 1,384 publications; 2,237 periodi- cals were recorded, and 6,115 catalog cards were filed; 191 cards were sent to the Union Catalogue of the Library of Congress. The library borrowed 945 books on Interlibrary Loan, and the Library of Congress lent 881 books. The library is the depository for photographs of the works of art in the National Gallery of Art's collections. A stock of reproductions is maintained for use in research, for exchange with other institu- tions, and for sale to interested individuals. Approximately 5,747 photographs were stocked in the library during the year. The library filled 1,252 orders for photographs. Sales to the general public amounted to $1,280 covering about 1,982 photographs. There were 288 permits for reproduction of 719 subjects processed in the library. INDEX OF AMERICAN DESIGN The work of the Index of American Design during the fiscal year 1960 continued under the direction of Dr. Erwin O. Christensen. Six- teen sets of color slides (793 slides) in 81 bookings were circulated throughout this country and in India. In addition, 79 individual slides were lent for lecture and study purposes. Lecture notes were completed for six slide sets, and 327 photographs of Index material were used for study and publication. The photographic files have been increased by 82 negatives and 903 prints. Approximately 300 visitors used Index material for the purpose of research, publication, and design. The curator of the Index has continued his participation in the orientation program of USIA personnel. The photographic file inventory project which was begun last year was completed. In order to complete the Index, the curator traveled to Indiana to note material in historical societies and museums which may even- tually be recorded. A pamphlet on the 18th century decorative arts in the newly opened Widener rooms was prepared by the department. SECRETARY'S REPORT 197 The curator published The History of Western Art (Volume 1, the New American Library of World Literature) . Expert opinions and advisory services were rendered by the curator. Gifts to the Index included a photograph of carved- wood gable figures given by H. F. Kuether, and a "Holly Doll" made and given by Miss Helen Bullard. MAINTENANCE OF THE BUILDING AND GROUNDS The Gallery building, the mechanical equipment, and the grounds, have been maintained at the established standards throughout the year, under the direction of Ernest R. Feidler, administrator, and his staff. The promenade tile on four small roof areas at the East and West Garden Courts was removed and replaced with new copper roofing. The design and installation of the replaced roofing were accomplished by the Gallery maintenance staff. In keeping with the recommendations of the Committee on the Building and the resolution of the Board of Trustees, in the southwest corner of the ground floor there were completed three new gallery rooms to provide a more suitable background for the French works of art in the Widener Collection and to place on permanent view the Rembrandt drawings in the Widener Collection, which have hereto- fore been exhibited periodically. One of these rooms is an 18th-cen- tury oak-paneled room once in the New York house of Dr. Hamilton Rice. Adjacent to the three new rooms a Graphic Arts area has been constructed and is now being completed. It consists of a Print Exhi- bition room containing 11 specially designed exhibition cases, a Print Study room, offices for the curator and assistant curator of Grapliic Arts, and a print storage room. LECTOUR The Gallery's electronic guide system, LecTour, continued to prove its value as an effective tool for art education purposes. It was used by 84,128 visitors during fiscal year 1960, being available in 20 differ- ent exhibition areas. Two special exhibitions — one on Daumier's works and one on Japanese Haniwa — received LecTour coverage. The use during fiscal year 1960 represented an increase of more than 15 percent over use in fiscal year 1959. Flexibility of LecTour lectures was insured by the completion dur- ing fiscal year 1960 of a sound studio with the most modem and effec- tive equipment for expeditiously making the Gallery's own recordings and tapes. OTHER ACTIVITIES During the fiscal year, 40 Sunday evening concerts were given, 10 of which were given by the National Gallery of Art orchestra directed 198 AKNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 19 60 by Richard H. Bales. Tayo of these 10 were made possible by the Music Performance Trust Fund of the American Federation of IMusi- cians. A string orchestra conducted by Mr. Bales furnished music during the opening of the Japanese Haniwa exhibition on January 9, 1960, and at the opening of the new Widener rooms on May 20, 1960. The five Sunday evening concerts in May were devoted to the Gallery's 17th American Music Festival. The Sunday evening con- cert on October 25, 1959, was dedicated to United Nations Day. All concerts were broadcast in their entirety in stereophonic sound by station WGMS-AM and FM. The Voice of America recorded por- tions of several Sunday concerts for transmission overseas. Intermissions during the Sunday concerts featured radio talks by members of the Educational Depai-tment and by Mr. Bales. During the year 12,794 copies of 17 press releases in connection with the Gallery's activities were issued. A total of 166 permits to copy works of art in the Galleiy, and 96 photographic permits were issued. In response to requests 2,862 copies of the pamphlet "A Cordial Invitation from the Director" and 2,582 copies of the Information Booklet were sent to Senators and Representatives for distribution to constituents ; and 40,820 copies of the pamphlet "A Cordial Invitation from the Director" and 3,500 copies of the Information Booklet were sent to various organizations holding conventions in Washington. The slide project begun the last fiscal year was extended, and sets of 500 color slides were placed on permanent deposit with 26 foreign universities and museums. This program was initiated to make the works of art in the National Gallery of Art better known. A total of 110 publications on the Gallery's collections and exhibi- tions were sent to various museums in accordance with the Exchange Program. Henry B. Beville, the Gallery's photographer, and his staff proc- essed 14,567 prints, 193 black-and-white slides, 18,813 color slides, 1,862 black-and-white negatives, 67 color-separation negatives, 393 transparencies, 9 infrared photographs, and 4 ultraviolet photographs, during the fiscal year. AUDIT OF PRIVATE FUNDS OF THE GALLERY An audit of the private funds of the Gallery will be made for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1960, by Price Waterhouse & Co., public accountants, and the certificate of that company on its examination of the accounting records maintained for such funds will be forwarded to the Gallery. Respectfully submitted, Huntington Cairns, Secretary. Dr. Leonard Carmichael, Secretary, Smithsonian Institution, Secretary's Report 1960 PLATE 10 i^i 'A '^ O O •- Z o ? ^ o <5 u secretary's Report I960 1. Jacob van Ruisdael: Park with a Couiuiy House. National Gallery of Art, Gift of Rupert L. Joseph. 2. Tiepolo: Bacchus and Ariadne. National Gallery of Art, Tinikcn Collection. Secretary's Report 1''60 PLATE 12 1. Fragonard: The Happy Famil) . Xaiiunal Galler}' of Art, 'I'imkcn Cullcction. 2. Benjamin West: The Battle of La I logue. National Galler\' of Art Purchase Fund, Andrew W. Mellon Gift. Plate 13 O y, u Report on the Library Sir : I have the honor to submit the following report on the activi- ties of the Smithsonian library for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1960: The library received 72,396 publications during the year, an increase of 19,727 over the preceding year. They came chiefly by exchange from scientific and learned societies located all over the world and written in many languages. These publications are mostly journals in the subject fields of interest to the Institution. New exchanges ar- ranged totaled 168, w^hile special requests for back issues of periodicals numbered 2,363. Purchased publications included 2,750 books and journals which could not be obtained in exchange. The George H. Clark collection of manuscripts and materials on the history of radio and electronics was tlie largest single gift re- ceived. The transfer of this collection from the Massachusetts Insti- tute of Technology Library was effected by Haraden Pratt of the Institute of Radio Engineers. This gift will be of great value in connection with the Smithsonian's large collection of objects in this field. Other gifts included books and journals from the American Nature Association ; 356 items on paleontology from Mrs. J. B. Knight of Alexandria, Va. ; another valuable collection of materials on me- chanical engineering from Mrs. Carolyn H. Edwards of Glen Echo, Md. ; and from the American Association for the Advancement of Science came a large donation of current periodicals. Tliese gifts by generous donors are gratefully acknowledged. In many instances they provide difficult-to-locate source materials. The original copper plates of the Wilkes Expedition Reports were transferred to the Smithsonian from the Library of CongTess. Many of these are believed to be unpublished heretofore and will prove of valuable reference use. Even though written and published over a hundred years ago, these reports continue to be constantlj' requested. To the Library of Congress were sent, by transfer, 26,052 publica- tions, many of which were serials and monographs received in ex- change; to the National Library of Medicine were sent 1,538 publica- tions; and 516 publications were sent to other Government agencies. The catalog section cataloged and classified 7,085 books and pam- phlets, entered 25,982 periodicals, and filed 33,818 catalog cards. To be an effective key to the library's resources, the card catalog must be 679421—61 16 199 200 ANlSrUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1960 kept up to date. The uncataloged material located in the divisional libraries throughout the Institution hampers effective library service. The program of discarding obsolete, ephemeral, and duplicate mate- rials continued, with the withdrawal of 11,758 items. In all, 9,200 volumes of valuable research materials were rebound. In addition, 2,206 items were bound or repaired by the library bindery assistant. New procedures were put into effect which resulted in a speedier and a more efficient handling of the materials to be bound. Other means of preservation, such as microfilming and laminating, will be considered for materials too fragile for commercial binding. The reference staff answered a total of 30,050 reference and biblio- graphic questions in response to requests by letter, telephone, or visi- tors to the library. Visitors numbering 11,565 used the reference and research facilities in the reading rooms. These included, in addi- tion to the Smithsonian staff, local and out-of-town visitors and scientists from other countries. The expanded programs of the Smithsonian have made increased demands on the library staff and its collections. Publications circulated totaled 24,253 ; 4,792 of these were borrowed from other libararies, chiefly the Library of CJongress ; 863 volumes were loaned to other libraries. The branch library which serves the Museum of History and Tech- nology completed a full year of operation. The staff answered 10,670 reference questions, circulated 8,505 publications, and provided service to 3,081 persons who came to the library. The program of binding and rebinding, labeling of books, acquiring of necessary source and reference materials continued in a satisfactory manner. The inven- tory of the collections progressed slowly because of inadequate catalog records. There has been an increase in the use of the branch libraries of the Division of Insects and the Bureau of American Ethnology, in- cluding use by visiting scholars and other libraries. The stack areas for the Division of Eadiation and Organisms and the National Col- lection of Fine Arts were cleaned and unwanted materials discarded. New forms used this year and new procedures resulted in greater efficiency in the library service. The most significant improvement was the multiple charge card which has streamlined operations at the circulation desk. A complete review of the old charge file was made, resulting in a more accurate charge-card record. Other means for improvement are being studied, and a continuous review of exchange correspondence files is eliminating unnecessary routines. The housing of tlie library is one of the most serious problems. Present facilities for shelving books in the main library are inadequate. Members of the staff continued their membership in the Special Libraries Association and the American Library Association, several SECRETARY'S REPORT 201 holding offices in both the local and national organizations. The library was represented at the annual convention of both associations. Miss Janet S. Dickson, foraierly with Pennsylvania State Univer- sity Library, was appointed chief of the catalog section on October 5, 1959. SUMMARIZED STATISTICS ACCESSIONS Total recorded volumes, 1960 329, 437 Smithsonian main library (includes former office and mu- seum libraries) Museum of History and Technology Astrophysical Observatory (including Radiation and Or- ganisms) Bureau of American Ethnology National Air Museum National Collection of Fine Arts National Zoological Park Total. 15, 187 38, 262 709 14, 237 4,293 Unbound volumes of i)eriodicals and reprints and separates from serial pub- lications, of which there are many thousands, have not been included in these totals. EXCHANGES New exchanges arranged 168 Specially requested publications received 2,363 CATALOGING Volumes cataloged 7, 085 Cataloged cards filed 33,818 PERIODICALS Periodical parts entered 25, 982 CIRCULATION Loans of books and periodicals 24, 253 Circulation in the divisional libraries is not counted except in the Division of Insects. BINDING AND REPAIR Volvunes sent to the bindery 9,200 Volimies repaired in the library 2,206 Respectfully submitted. Ruth E. Blanchaed, Librarian. Dr. Leonard Carmichael, Secretary^ Smithsonian Institution. Report on Publications SiK : I have the honor to submit the following report on the publi- cations of the Smithsonian Institution and its branches for the year ended June 30, 1960: The publications of the Smithsonian Institution are issued partly from federally appropriated funds (Smithsonian Reports and publi- cations of the National Museum, the Bureau of American Etlmology, and the Astrophysical Observatory) and partly from private endow- ment funds (Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, publications of the Freer Gallery of Art, and some special publications). The Insti- tution also edits and publishes under the auspices of the Freer Gallery of Art the series Ars Orientalis, wliich appears under the joint im- print of the University of Michigan and the Smithsonian Institution. The fourth volume is this series was in press at the close of the year. In addition, the Smithsonian publishes a guidebook, a picture pam- phlet, postcards and a postcard folder, a color-picture album, color slides, a filmstrip on Smithsonian exhibits, a coloring book for chil- dren, and popular publications on scientific and historical subjects related to its important exliibits and collections for sale to visitors. Through its publication program the Smithsonian endeavors to carry out its founder's expressed desire for the diffusion of knowledge. During the year the Institution published 11 papers and title page and contents to 4 volumes in the Miscellaneous Collections ; 1 Annual Report of the Board of Regents and separates of 20 articles in the General Appendix ; 1 Annual Report of the Secretary ; 1 special pub- lication ; and reprints of 3 volumes of Miscellaneous Collections. The U.S. National Museum issued 1 Annual Report, 4 Bulletins, 20 Proceedings papers and title page, contents, and index for 2 Proceed- ings volumes and 2 papers in the Series Contributions from the U.S. National Herbarium. The Bureau of American Ethnology issued 1 Annual Report and 5 Bulletins. The Astrophysical Observatory issued 8 numbers in the series Smithsonian Contributions to Astrophysics. The Smithsonian Traveling Exliibition Service, under the National Collection of Fine Arts, published 2 catalogs. The Freer Gallery of Art issued 1 paper in its Occasional Papers series, 2 catalogs, and volume 3 of Ars Orientalis. 202 SECRETARY'S REPORT 203 DISTRIBUTION In all, 661,370 copies of publications and miscellaneous items were distributed. Publications: 33 Contributions to Knowledge, 31,963 Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, 7,373 Annual Report volumes and 23,284 pamplilet copies of Report separates, 44,798 special pub- lications, 233 reports of the Harriman Alaska Expedition, 47,497 publications of the National Museum, 31,547 publications of the Bu- reau of American Ethnology, 26,671 publications of the National Collection of Fine Arts, 1,112 publications of the Freer Gallery of Art, 16,243 publications of the Astropliysical Observatory, 2,944 Re- ports of the American Historical Association, and 3,688 publications not issued by the Smithsonian Institution. Miscellaneous items: 232 North American Wild Flowers and 6 Wild Flower prints, 4 Pitcher Plant volumes, 48,656 Guide Books, 17,473 picture pamphlets, 255,271 postcards and postcard folders, 20,794 color slides, 78,425 informa- tion leaflets, 10 New IMuseum of History and Technology pamphlets. There were also distributed 401 statuettes, 2,337 Viewmaster reels, and 1 filmstrip and 1 filmstrip record.^ SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS In this series, under the immediate editorship of Ruth B. MaclNIanus, there were issued 11 papers and title pages and contents of 4 volumes, as follows : Volume 119 Title page and table of contents. ( Publ. 4384. ) [July] 19.59. Volume 135 Title page and table of contents. (Publ. 4386.) [August] 1959. Volume 136 Title page and table of contents. ( Publ. 4387. ) [August] 1959. Volume 138 No. 5. A biological study of Katmai National Monument, by Victor H. Cahalane. 246 pp., 17 pis., 4 figs. (Publ. 4376.) Aug. 20, 1959. ($3.00.) Title page and table of contents. ( PubL 4418. ) [March] 1960. Volume 139 No. 2. The birds of Isla Escudo de Veraguas, Panama, by Alexander Wetmore. 27 pp., 1 pi., 3 figs. (PubL4378.) July 8, 19.59. (50 cents.) No. 3. Further observations on distribution of patterns of coagulation of the hemolymph in neotropical insects, by Charles Gr^goire. 23 pp. (Publ. 4379.) Aug. 18, 19.59. ( 40 cents. ) No. 4. A review of the genus Hoplomys (thick-spined rats), with description of a now form from Isla Escudo de Veraguas, Panama, by Charles O. Handley, Jr. 10 pp., 1 fig. (PubL4380.) July 3, 1959. (25 cents.) ^Additional copies of the Institution's filmstrip and record. "Let's Visit the Smith- sonian," were distributed through the Society for Visual Education, Chicago, 111. 204 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1960 No. 5. Genera of Tertiary and Recent rhynchonellid brachiopods, by G. Arthur Cooper. 90 pp., 22 pis., 1 fig. (Publ.4382.) Nov. 23, 1959. ($2.00.) No. 6. A revision of the Silurian bryozoan genus Trematopora, by Richard S. Boardman. 14 pp., 2 pis., 1 fig. (Publ. 4383.) Oct. 20, 1959. (50 cents.) No. 7. Early Tertiary Apheliscus and Phenacodaptes as pantolestid insectivores, by C. Lewis Gazin. 7 pp., 2 pis. (Publ. 4385.) Aug. 12, 1959. (25 cents.) No. 8. The anatomical life of the mosquito, by R. E. Snodgrass. 87 pp., 30 figs. (Publ. 4388.) Nov. 4, 1959. ($1.00.) No. 9. A long-range forecast of United States precipitation, by C. G. Abbot. 78 pp., 12 figs., 9 charts. (Publ. 4390.) Mar. 23, 1960. ($1.25.) No. 11. A classification for the birds of the world, by Alexander Wetmore. 37 pp. ( Publ. 4417. ) June 23, 1960. (40 cents. ) Volume 140 No. 1. Classification and multiplicity of growth layers in the branches of trees, by Waldo S. Clock, R. A. Studhalter, and Sharlene R. Agerter. 294 pp., 36 pis., 51 figs. (Publ. 4421.) June 17, 1960. ($5.00.) SMITHSONIAN ANNUAL REPORTS REPORT FOR 1958 The complete volume of the Annual Report of the Board of Regents for 1958 was received from the printer on December 8, 1959 : Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution showing the operations, expenditures, and condition of the Institution for the year ended June 30, 1958. x+559 pp., 92 pis., 15 figs. (Publ. 4354.) The general appendix contained the following papers (Publ. 4355- 4374) : The sun's energy, by Farrington Daniels. Sun, sea, and air, by Roger Revelle. Rocketry, by Donald Cox and Michael Stoiko. Fresh water for arid lands, by David S. Jenkins. The abundance of the chemical elements, by Hans E. Suess. Earthquakes and related sources of evidence on the earth's internal structure, by K. E. Bullen. The Darwin-Wallace centenary, by Sir Gavin de Beer. Does natural selection continue to operate in modern mankind? by Theodoslus Dobzhansky and Gordon Allen. The ecology of man, by Paul B. Sears. The sea otter, by Karl W. Kenyon. Screwworm eradication : concepts and research leading to the sterile-male method, by E. F. Knipling. Narrative of the 1958 Smithsonian-Bredin Caribbean Expedition, by Waldo L. Schmitt. Tools makyth man, by Kenneth Oakley. The backwash of the frontier : The impact of the Indian on American culture, by A. Irving Hallowell. The restored Shanidar I skull, by T. D. Stewart. Acculturation in the Guajira, by Rayuiond E. Crist. The Braced-up Cliff at Pueblo Bonito, by Neil M. Judd. SECRETARY'S REPORT 205 A century of American Indian exhibits in the Smithsonian Institution, by Jolin C. Ewers. The childhood pattern of genius, by Harold G. McCurdy. The New England porringer : An index of custom, by Anthony N. B. Garvan. REPORT FOR 1959 The Report of the Secretary, which will form part of the Annual Report of the Board of Regents to Congress, was issued January 15, 1960: Report of the Secretary and financial report of the Executive Committee of the Board of Regents for the year ended June 30, 1959. x + 243 pp., 10 pis., Imap. (Publ.4389.) SPECIAL PUBLICATIONS The Smithsonian Institution. 1959 revised edition. 49 pp., illustr. (Publ. 4145.) [November] 1959. REPRINTS Smithsonian Logarithmic Tables, prepared by George Wellington Speneeley, Reba Murray Speneeley, and Eugene Rhodes Epperson. First reprint. Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, vol. 118, Publ. 4054. xii + 402 pp. [January] 1960. ($4.50.) Smithsonian Physical Tables, prepared by William Elmer Forsythe. Ninth revised edition, second reprint. Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, vol. 120, Publ. 4169. vi + 827 pp., 36 fig. [November] 1959. ($10.00.) Small arms and ammunition in the United States Service, 1776-1865, by Berkeley R. Lewis. First reprint. Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, vol. 129, Publ. 4254. viil + 338 pp., 52 pis., 28 figs. [May] 1960. ($8.00.) PUBLICATIONS OF THE UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM The editorial work of the National Museum continued during the year under the immediate direction of John S. Lea, assistant chief of the division. The following publications were issued : REPORT The United States National Museum annual report for the year ended June 30, 1959. vi + 178 pp., Illustr. Jan. 15, 1960. BULLETINS 202, vol. 2. Fishes of the Marshall and Marianas Islands, by Leonard P. Schultz and collaborators: Wilbert M. Chapman, Ernest A. Lachner, and Loren P. Woods. Ix + 438 pp., pis. 75-123, figs. 91-132. May 11, 1960. 216, part 2. Ichneumon-flies of America north of Mexico: 2. Subfamilies Ephialtinae, Xoridinae, and Acaenitinae, by Henry and Marjorie Townes and collaborators: G. Stuart Walley, Luella Walkley, Dale Habeck, and George Townes. vii + 676 pp., 378 figs. June 24, 1960. 217. Birds of Anaktuvuk Pass, Kobuk, and Old Crow, by Laurence Irving, viii + 409 pp., 13 pis., 36 figs. Mar. 22, 1960. 206 ANIS^UAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 19 60 218. Contributions from the Museum of History and Technology, Papers 1-11. V -f 201 pp., 124 figs. Nov. 16, 1959. No. 1. The Scholfield wool-carding machines, by Grace L. Rogers. No. 2. John Deere's steel plow, by Edward C. Kendall. No. 3. The beginnings of cheap steel, by Philip W. Bishop. No. 4. The Auburndale Watch Company, by Edwin A. Battison. No. 5. Development of the phonograph at Alexander Graham Bell's Volta Laboratory, by Leslie J. Newville. No. 6. On the origin of clockwork, perpetual motion devices, and the compass, by Derek J. de SoUa Price. No. 7. Mine pimiping in Agricola's time and later, by Robert P. Multhauf. No. 8. The natural philosophy of William Gilbert and his predecessors, by W. James King. No. 9. Conestoga wagons in Braddock's campaign, 1755, by Don H. Berkebile. No. 10. Old English patent medicines in America, by George B. Griffen- hagen and James Harvey Young. No. 11. Why Bewick succeeded : A note in the history of wood engraving, by Jacob Kainen. CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE U.S. NATIONAL HERBARIUM Volume 35 Part 1. Supplemental notes on the American species of Passifloraceae with de- Bcriptions of new species, by Ellsworth P. Killip. ii + 23 pp., 11 pis. May 10, 1960. Volumt 56 Part 1. A revision of the South American species of Parmelia determined by Lynge, by Mason E. Hale, Jr. 41 pp., 5 pis. May 18, 1060. PROCEEDINGS Volume 108 No. 3408. A revision of the butterfly genera Theochila and Tatochila (Lepidop- tera: Pieridae), by Jos6 Herrera and William D. Field. Pp. 467-514, 93 figs. July 24, 1959. Title page, table of contents, and index. Pp. i-v, 599-627. May 11, 1960. Volume 109 No. 3412. Marine Mollusca of Point Barrow, Alaska, by Nettie MacGinitie. Pp. 59-208, 27 pis. Sept. 18, 1959. No. 3415. Biting midges of the genus Culicoides from Panama (Diptera: Helel- dae), by Willis W. Wirth and Franklin S. Blanton. Pp. 237-482, 91 figs. July 29, 1959. Title page, table of contents, and index. Pp. 1-iii, 483-498. May 18, 1960. No. 3416. Grasshoppers of the Mexicanus group, genus Melanoplus (Orthoptera: Acrididae), by Ashley B. Gurney and A. R. Brooks. Pp. 1-93, 5 pis., 18 figs. July 9, 1959. No. 3417. A revision of American bats of the genera Euderma and Plecotut, by Charles O. Handley, Jr. Pp. 95-246, 27 figs. Sept. 3, 1959. SECRETARY'S REPORT 207 No. 3418. A revision of the Apion subgenus Trichapion Wagner in the New World (Coleoptera: Curculiouidae), by David G. Kissinger. Pp. 247-389, 19 figs. Oct. 23, 1959. No, 3419. A description and classification of the final instar larvae of the Ich- neumonidae (Insecta, Hymeuoptera ) , by J. R. T. Short. Pp. 391-511, 64 figs. Oct. 23, 1959. No. 3420. Mammals of northern Colombia, preliminary report No. 8: Arboreal rice rats, a systematic revision of the subgenus Oecomys, genus Oryzomys, by PhiUp Hershlfovitz. Pp. 513-568, 12 pis., 6 figs. Feb. 24, 1960. No. 3421. The rodent-Infesting Anoplura (sucking lice) of Thailand, vpith re- marks on some related species, by Phyllis T. Johnson. Pp. 569-598, 75 figs. Sept. 10, 1959. Volumt 111 No. 3422. A new American genus of cryptopid centipedes, with an annotated key to the scolopendromorph genera from America north of Mexico, by Ralph E. Crabill, Jr. Pp. 1-15, 16 figs. Jan. 27, 1960. No. 3423. A fourth contribution to the knowledge of Neotropical platyrhacid mil- lipeds (Diplopoda: Polydesmida ) , by Richard L. Hoffman. Pp. 17-31, 1 fig. Feb. 2, 1960. No. 3424. Millipeds from Dominica, British West Indies, by Richard L. Hoffman. Pp. 33-41, 2 figs. Jan. 22, 19G0. No. 3425. Notes on larvae of nine genera of Aphodiinae in the United States (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae), by Manohar Lai Jerath. Pp. 43-94, 89 figs. Feb. 2, 1980. No. 3426. A synopsis of the Atopetholidae, a family of spiroboloid millipeds, by Richard L. Hoffman and Barbara S. Orcutt. Pp. 95-165, 12 figs. Mar. 14, 1960. No. 3427. Centipedes of the Smithsonian-Brediu expeditions to the West Indies, by Richard B. Selander and John K. Bouseman, Pp. 197-226, 12 figs. Mar. 14, 1960. Volume 112 No. 3432. Flies of the family Conopldae from eastern Asia, by Sidney Camras. P]). 107-131. June 24, 1960. No. 3433. Fireflies of the genus Pyractonewa (Coleoptera: Lampyridae), by Frank A. McDermott. Pp. 133-157, 9 figs. June 24, 1960. No. 3434. North and South American copepods of the genus Hemicyclops (Cyclopoida: Clausidiidae), by Richard U. Gooding. Pp. 159-195, 10 figs. June 17, 19G0. No. 3435. Chironomid midges of California. I. Chironominae, e.xclusive of Tan- tarsini (=Calopsecti-iui), by James E. Sublette. Pp. 197-226, 2 figs. June 28, 1960. PUBLICATIONS OF THE BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY The editorial work of the Bureau continued under the immediate direction of Mrs. Eloise B. Edelen. The following publications were issued : ANNUAL REPORT Seventy-sixth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology, 1958-1959. ii-f 41 pp., 4 pis. 1960. RULLETINS Bulletin 143, Vol. 7. Index to the Handbook of South American Indians, vi-f 286 pp. 1959. 208 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1960 Bulletin 172. The story of a Tlingit community : A problem in the relationship between archeological, ethnological, and historical methods, by Frederica de Laguna. x+254 pp., 11 pis., 18 figs. 1960. Bulletin 173. Anthropological Papers Nos. 57-62. iii+498 pp., 61 pis., 37 figs., 2 maps. 1960. No. 57. Preceramic and ceramic cultural patterns in northwest Virginia, by C. G. Holland. No. 58. An introduction to Plains Apache archeology — the Dismal River As- pect, by James H. Gunnerson. No. 59, The use of the atlatl on Lake Patzcuaro, Michoacdn, by M. W. Stirling. No. 60. A Caroline Islands script, by Saul H. Riesenberg and Shigeru Kaneshiro. No. 61. Dakota winter counts as a source of Plains history, by James H. Howard. No. 62. Stone tipi rings in north-central Montana and the adjacent portion of Alberta, Canada: Their historical, ethnological, and archeological as- pects, by Thomas F. Kehoe. Bulletin 174. An introduction to Kansas archeology, by Waldo R. Wedel. With desci-iption of the skeletal remains from Doniphan and Scott Counties, Kansas, by T. D. Stewart, xvii+723 pp., 97 pis., 109 figs. 1959. Bulletin 177. Archeological investigations in British Guiana, by Clifford Evans and Betty J. Meggers, xxi+418 pp., 68 pis., 127 figs. 1960. PUBLICATIONS OF THE ASTROPHYSICAL OBSERVATORY The editorial work of the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory continued under the immediate direction of Ernest E. Biebighauser. The year's publications are as follows : Volume 3 No. 6. A fluid-dynamic mechanism of meteorite pitting, by David T. Williams. Pp. 47-67, 14 pis., 9 figs. 1959. No. 7. Periodic orbits of a planetoid passing close to two gravitating masses, by Robert R. Newton. Pp. 69-78, 5 figs. 1959. No. 8. Meteor trains, by Robert F. Hughes. Pp. 79-94, 13 figs. 1959. No. 9. Geodetic uses of artificial satellites, by George Veis. Pp. i-iv, 95-161, 23 figs. 1960. Volume 4 No. 1. Catalog of hourly meteor rates, by Charles P. Olivier. Pp. 1-14. 1960. Volume 5 No. 1. The meteoric head echo, by Allen F. Cook and Gerald Hawkins. Pp. 1-7, 2 figs. 1960. No. 2. The upper atmosphere and satellite drag, by R. J. Stirton. Pp. 9-15, 5 figs. 1960. No. 3. On the structure of the sunspot zone, by Barbara Bell. Pp. 17-28, 15 figs. 1960. PUBLICATIONS OF THE NATIONAL COLLECTION OF HNE ARTS The art of Seth Eastman, by John Francis McDermott Smithsonian Traveling Exhibition Service Catalog. 34 pp., 9 plate figs. 1959. Smithsonian Institution Traveling Exhibitions, 1960-1961 catalog. 40 pp. 1960, SECRETARY'S REPORT 209 PUBLICATIONS OF THE FREER GALLERY OF ART Calligraphers and painters: A treatise by Qadi Ahmad, son of Mir-Munshi (circa A.H. 1015/A.D. 1606). Translated from the Persian by V. Minorsljy. With an introduction by B. N. Zakhoder, translated from the Russian by T. Minorsky. Freer Gallery of Art Occ, Pap., vol. 3, No. 2. x+225 pp., 8 pis. (Publ. 4339.) 1959. ($4.00.) Hokusai paintings and drawings in the Freer Gallery of Ar<;, by Harold P. Stern. Catalog. 40 pp., 36 pis. (Publ. 4419). 1960. ($1.00.) Medieval Near Eastern ceramics iu the Freer Gallery of Art, by Richard Ettinghausen. Catalog. 40 pp., 40 plate figs. (Publ. 4420.) 1960. ($1.00.) Ars Orientalis, vol. 3. vl+263 pp., 132 pis., 28 figs. (Publ. 4381.) 1959. ($20.00.) REPORTS OF THE AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCLVTION The annual reports of the American Historical Association are transmitted by the Association to the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution and are by him communicated to Congress, as provided in the act of mcorporation of the Association. The following reports were issued during the year : Annual Report of the American Historical Association, 1955. VoL 2, Writings on American History, 1953. 1960. Annual Report of the American Historical Association, 1958. Vol. 1, Proceed- ings. 1959. REPORT OF THE NATIONAL SOCIETY, DAUGHTERS OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION In accordance with law, the manuscripts of the sixty-first and sixty- second annual reports of the National Society, Daughters of the American Revolution, were transmitted to Congress on February 1 and March 7, 1960, respectively. OTHER ACTIVITIES During the year the Smithsonian Institution was elected to affiliate membership in the Association of American University Presses. Late in May, the chief of the Editorial and Publications Division attended the annual meeting of the Association in Pittsburgh, repre- senting the Institution and formally accepting the membership. A project consummated during the year was the editing of "Smith- sonian Treasury of Science," an anthology of 50 articles that have appeared over the years in the General Appendices of the Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian. These appendices, which have appeared in the Report without a break for well over a century, have contained many outstanding and important articles in science and technology, most of them by eminent scientists and writers. "Written primarily for the general public, rather than for specialized readers, they have formed a significant part of the Institution's pro- 210 AKNTJAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1960 gram for the diffusion of knowledge. It was felt that bringing the best of the articles together for a wider leadership would be well worthwhile from many standpoints. The new work, edited by W. P. True, former chief of the division, will appear in a 3-volume set in the fall of 1960, published by Simon & Schuster, Inc., of New York, in cooperation with the Smithsonian. The chief of the division continued to represent the Smithsonian Institution on the board of directors of the Greater Washmgton Educational Television Association, Inc., of which the Institution is a member. Kespectfully submitted. Paul H. Oehsek, Chiefs Editorial and Publications Division. Dr. Leonard Carmichaei., Secretary^ Smithsonian Institution. Other Activities LECTURES In 1931 the Institution received a bequest from James Arthur, of New York City, a part of the income from which was to be used to endow an annual lecture on some aspect of the sun. The 26th Arthur lecture was delivered in the auditorium of the Natural History Building on the evening of October 15, 1959, by Dr. Alan Maxwell, research associate of the Eadio Astronomy Station of Plarvard Col- lege Observatory, Fort Davis, Tex., on the subject "Radio Waves from the Sun." This lecture, the first in the series that has been concerned with radio astronomy, was published in full in the general appendix of the Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution for 1959. Dr. George E. Mylonas, professor and chairman of the Department of Art and Archaeology of Washington University, St. Louis, Mo., delivered a lecture on "Eleusis, Its Sanctuary and Cemetery" in the auditoiium of the Natural Histoiy Building on the evening of Febru- ary 25, 1960. This was sponsored jointly by the Smithsonian and the Archaeological Institute of America. Several lectures were also sponsored by the Freer Gallery of Art and the National Gallery of Art. These are listed in the reports of these bureaus. Many other lectures on technical subjects were given at the Smith- sonian during the year. BIO-SCIENCES INFORMATION EXCHANGE The Bio-Sciences Information Exchange, an agency operated within the Smithsonian Institution but financed by other Government agen- cies, is a clearing house for research in the life sciences. Abstracts of on-going research are registered by investigators en- gaged in biological, medical, and psychological research and in limited aspects of research in thQ social sciences. Through an extensive sys- tem of subject indexing, these abstracts are provided upon request and without charge to researchers in research institutions. Tlirough this simple mechanism, the Exchange maintains a commmiication system which precedes publication and prevents unknowing duplica- tion. For granting agencies and properly constituted committees it prepares extensive sui'veys of research in broad areas. 211 212 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1960 The efficiency of the Bio-Sciences Information Exchange is greatly aided by the functional arrangement of its new offices and its elec- tronic equipment. A Burroughs 205 computer was installed in Octo- ber and considerable progress has been made toward conversion to operation on magnetic tape. The volume of information in the Bio-Sciences Information Ex- change continues to grow; approximately 30,000 current research studies are presently registered. The services of the Exchange are used increasingly by the scientific public as well as by granting agen- cies. The National Aeronautics and Space Administration joined the other Federal agencies supporting the Exchange this year. One new professional, Willis Foster, M.D., joined the staff in July. Conversations among Federal agencies are in progress concerning broadening the scope of the Exchange to include the physical as well as the biological sciences. SMITHSONIAN MUSEUM SERVICE The Smithsonian Museum Service, through appropriate educational media, interprets to museum visitors and to the general public, the objects, specimens, and exhibits of the several Smithsonian museums and develops educational programs for interpreting the work of the Institution in the fields of science, natural history, art, and history. The activity of the Museum Service includes the administration of Smithsonian cooperation with the volunteer docents of the Junior I^eague of Washington, D.C. A more complete report of this activity is carried in the Report of the United States National Museum. The Museum Service also provided assistance to professional and subprofessional individuals and groups visiting the museums of the Institution. Arrangements were made through the Museum Service for Smithsonian participation in the Workshop on the Use of Com- munity Resources sponsored by the University of Maryland. Through the facilities of this workshop, a 5-day program outlining the history of the Institution and the work of the various Smithson- ian museum and research bureaus was presented to 39 graduate stu- dents from the University of Maryland. Assistance in the form of lectures, answers to inquiries, and special tours of certain museum areas was also rendered to other college and university groups visiting the Institution and to individuals from the United States and abroad, visiting, or planning to visit the Smithsonian in a professional capacity. The Museum Service took the first step in a long-range project to orient visitors to the various museums and exhibits of the Institution, through the installation and operation of an electronically controlled, automatic slide lecture device in the Great Hall of the Smithsonian Building. SECRETARY'S REPORT 213 Arrangements for various Smithsonian public functions and events, including lectures, films, and the opening of new halls and exhibits were made by the Museum Service. More complete information about these activities will be found mider appropriate headings else- where in the Annual Report of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Mailing lists for invitations to these functions were en- larged and maintained, and the Smithsonian Calendar of Events, a monthly listing of special events of the Institution was prepared and distributed. Report of the Executive Committee of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian In- stitution For the Year Ended June 30, 1960 To the Board oj Regents oj the Smithsonian Institution: Your executive committee respectfully submits the following report in relation to the funds of the Smithsonian Institution, together with a statement of the appropriations by Congress for the Government biu-eaus in the admmistrative charge of the Institution. SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION PARENT FUND The original bequest of James Smithsou was £104,960 8s 6d — $508,318.46. Refunds of money expended in prosecution of the claim, freight, insurance, and other incidental expenses, together with payment into the fund of the sum of £5,015, which had been with- held during the lifetime of Madame de la Batut, brought the fund to the amount of $550,000. The gift of James Smithson was "lent to the United States Treasmy, at 6 per centum per annum interest" (20 USC. 54) and by the Act of March 12, 1894 (20 USC. 55) the Secretary of the Treasmy was "authorized to receive into the Treasury, on the same terms as the original bequest of James Smithson, such sums as the Regents may, from time to time see fit to deposit, not exceeding, with the original bequest the sum of $1,000,000." The maxunum of $1,000,000 which the Smithsonian Institution was authorized to deposit in the Treasury of the United States was reached on January 11, 1917, by the deposit of $2,000. Under the above authority the amounts shown below are deposited in the United States Treasury and draw 6 percent interest: 214 REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE 215 James Smithson Avery Habel Hamilton Hodgkins (general) . Poore Rhees Sanford Total. Hodgkins (specific). Rcid Total. Unrestricted funds Income 1960 $727, G40 $43, 658. 40 14, 000 840. 00 500 30.00 2,500 150. 00 116,000 6, 960. 00 26, 670 1, 600. 20 590 35. 40 1, 100 66.00 889, 000 53, 340. 00 Restricted funds 100, 000 6, 000. 00 11,000 660. 00 111,000 6, 660. 00 Grand total $1, 000, 000 $60, 000. 00 In addition to the $1,000,000 deposited in the Treasury of the United States there has been accumulated from income and bequests the sum of $3,716,789.35 which has been invested. Of this sum, $3,607,281.51 is carried on the books of the Institution as the Con- solidated Fund, a pohcy approved by the Regents at their meetmg on December 14, 1916. The balance is made up of several small funds. CONSOLIDATED FUND (Income for the unrestricted use of the Institution) Fund Abbott, W. L., Special *Avery, Robert S. and Lydia Gifts, royalties, gain on sale of securities Hachenberg, George P. and Caroline *Hamilton, James tiart, Gustavus E Henry, Caroline Henry, Joseph and Harriet A *Hodgkins, Thomas G. (general^ Morrow, Dwight W Olmsted, Helen A *Poore, Lucy T. and George W Porter, Henry Kirke *Rhees, William Jones *Sanford, George H *Smithson, James Witherspoon, Thomas A Total Investment 1900 $20, 720. 76 54, 951. 79 384, 126. 43 5, 595. 10 561. 59 677. 62 1, 682. 55 68, 197. 81 42, 143. 05 107, 580. 49 1, 115. 36 226, 424. 24 398, 433. 63 658. 20 1, 238. 44 1, 698. 42 179, 535. 92 1, 495, 347. 40 Income 1960 $1, 107. 19 2, 936. 06 20, 523. 76 298. 96 30.01 36. 18 89. 92 3, 643. 79 2, 251. 68 5, 747. 97 59. 53 12, 096. 78 21,288.21 35. 15 66. 19 90.73 9, 591. 53 79, 893. 64 •In addition to funds deposited in the United iitates Treasury. 579421—61 17 216 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1960 Consolidated Fund (Income restricted to specific use) Fond Investment 1960 Income 1960 $145, 242. 68 $7, 701. 61 55, C39. 21 2, 972. 79 69, 700. 74 3, 724. 07 33, 496. 00 1, 789. 66 39, 902. 20 2, 131. 96 1, 390. 87 74 32 63, 209. 73 2, 843. 00 17,438. 11 931. 72 39, 177. 19 2, 093. 23 59, 902. 53 3, 200. 25 15, 121. 68 807. 94 12, 367. 69 660. 81 9, 143. 28 488. 50 2, 195. 26 117. 27 63, 291. 13 3,210. 11 26, 629. 65 1, 422. 82 121, 247. 99 6, 477. 24 755. 39 40.35 27, 287. 52 1, 456. 98 28, 101. 09 1, 501. 42 30, 938. 64 1, 653. 05 Abbott, William L., for investigations in biology . Arthur, James, for investigations and study of the sun and annual lecture on same Bacon, Virginia Purdy, for traveling scholarship to investigate fauna of countries other than the United States Baird, Lucy H., for creating a memorial to Secre- tary Baird Barney, Alice Pike, for collection of paintings and pastels and for encouragement of American artistic endeavor Barstow, Frederick D., for purchase of animals for National Zoological Park Canfield Collection, for increase and care of the Canfield collection of minerals Casey, Thomas L., for maintenance of the Casey collection and promotion of researches relating to Coleoptera Chamberlain, Francis Lea, for increase and pro- motion of Isaac Lea collection of gems and mollusks Dykes, Charles, for support in financial research. Eickemeyer, Florence Brevoort, for preservation and exhibition of the photographic collection of Rudolph Eickemeyer, Jr Hanson, Martin Gustav and Caroline Runice, for some scientific work of the Institution, prefer- ably in chemistry or medicine Hillyer, Virgil, for increase and care of Virgil Hillyer collection of lighting objects Hitchcock, Albert S., for care of the Hitchcock Agrostological Library Hrdlidka, Ale§ and Marie, to further researches in physical anthropology and publication in con- nection therewith Hughes, Bruce, to found Hughes alcove Loeb, Morris, for furtherance of knowledge in the exact sciences Long, Annette and Edith C, for upkeep and preservation of Long collection of embroideries, laces, and textiles Maxwell, Mary E., for care and exhibition of Max- well collection Myer, Catherine Walden, for purchase of first- class works of art for use and benefit of the National Collection of Fine Arts Nelson, Edward W., for support of biological studies REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE CONSOUDATED FuND — Continued 217 Fund Investment 1960 Income 1960 Noyes, Frank B., for use in connection with the collection of dolls placed in the U.S. National Museum through the interest of Mr. and Mrs. Noyes $1, 336. 10, 312. 10, 31.3. 14, 796. 24, 745. 167, 902. 32, 072. 188, 051. 33, 221. 24, 948. 13, 909. 667, 140. 80, 530. 97, 112. 1, 319. 59 28 21 89 63 74 20 15 51 37 98 38 58 27 65 1, 8, 1, 9, 1, 1, 35 4 5 $71. 550. 551. 790. 081. 969. 713. 785. 807. 331. 743. 503. 302. 188. 70. 39 Pell, Cornelia Livingston, for maintenance of Alfred Duane Pell collection _ __ «»R Petrocelli, Joseph, for the care of the Petrocelli collection of photogra])hic prints and for the enlargement and development of the section of photography of the U.S. National Museum Rathbun, Richard, for use of division of U.S. National Museum containing Crustacea Reid, Addison T.,» for founding chair in biology, in memory of Asher Tunis _ 01 61 79, Roebling Collection, for care, improvement, and increase of Roebling Collection of minerals Roebling Solar Research 98 61 Rollins, Miriam and William, for investigations in physics and chemistry 18 Smithsonian employees' retirement 54 Springer, Frank, for care and increase of the Springer collection and library 96 Strong, Julia D., for benefit of the National Col- lection of Fine Arts_ 21 Walcott, Charles D. and Mary Vaux, for develop- ment of geological and paleontological studies and publishing results of same 44 Walcott, Mary Vaux, for publications in botany_ _ Younger, Helen Walcott, held in trust 72 04 Zerbee, Frances Brinckle, for endowment of aquaria 52 Total 2, 219, 892. 01 117 760. 94 • In addition to funds deposited In the United States Treasury. FREER GALLERY OF ART FUND Early in 1906, by deed of gift, Charles L. Freer, of Detroit, gave to the Institution his collection of Chinese and other Oriental objects of art, as well as paintings, etchmgs, and other works of art by Wliistler, Thayer, Dewing, and other artists. Later he also gave funds for construction of a building to house the collection, and finally in his will, probated Novembe£^6, 1919, he provided stocks and securities to the estimated value of $1,958,591.42, as an endowment fund for the operation of the Gallery. The fund now amounts to $9,054,863.05. 218 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 19 60 SUMMARY OF ENDOWMENTS Invested endowment for general purposes $2, 384, 347. 40 Invested endowment for specific purposes other than Freer endowment 2, 332, 441. 95 Total invested endowment other than Freer 4, 716, 789. 35 Freer invested endowment for specific purposes 9, 054, 863. 05 Total invested endowment for all purposes 13, 771, 652. 40 CLASSIFICATION OF INVESTMENTS Deposited in the U.S Treasury at 6 percent per annum, as authorized in the U.S. Revised Statutes, sec. 5591. 1, 000, 000. 00 Investments other than Freer endowment (cost or market value at date acquired) : Bonds $1, 435, 639. 64 Stocks 2, 267, 442. 96 Real estate and mortgages 701. 00 Uninvested capital 13,005.75 3,716,789.35 Total investments other than Freer endowment 4, 716, 789. 35 Investments of Freer endowment (cost or market value at date acquired) : Bonds $5, 055, 066. 30 Stocks 3, 971, 028. 11 Uninvested capital 28,768.64 9,054,863.05 Total investments 13, 771, 652. 40 ASSETS Cash: United States Treasury current account $1 , 276, 049. 02 In banks and on hand- _ 511,002.19 1, 787, 051. 81 Less uninvested endowment funds 41, 774. 39 $1, 745, 277. 42 Travel and other advances 7, 785. 20 Cash invested (U.S. Treasury notes) 1, 328, 878. 18 3, 081, 940. 80 Investments — at book value: Endowment funds: Freer Gallery of Art: Stocks and bonds $9, 026, 094. 41 Uninvested cash 28, 768. 64 9, 054, 863. 05 REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE 219 ASSETS — Continued Investments at book value other than Freer: Stocks and bonds (Con- solidated Fund) . - _ $3, 603, 299. 33 Uninvested cash 13, 005, 75 Special deposit in U.S. Treasury at 6 percent interest. . 1, 000, 000. 00 Other stocks and bonds 99,783.27 Real estate and mort- gages 701.00 — $4, 716, 789. 35 $13, 771, 052. 40 Total 10, 853, 593. 20 UNEXPENDED FUNDS AND ENDOWMENTS Unexpended funds: Income from Freer Gallery of Art endowment $025, 788. 70 Income from other endowments: Restricted $501, 326. 58 General 623,034. 11 1, 124, 360. 69 Gifts and contributions 1, 331, 791. 41 3, 081, 940. 80 Endowment funds: Freer Gallery of Art $9, 054, 863. 05 Other: General 2, 384, 347. 40 Restricted 2, 332, 441. 95 13, 771, 652. 40 Total 16,853,593.20 220 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1960 CASH BALANCES, RECEIPTS, AND DISBURSEMENTS DURING FISCAL YEAR 1960 1 Restricted funds Unrestricted funds Gifts and grants Total General Freer RECEIPTS: Income from investments: $438, 820. 08 $438, 820. 08 $105, 188. 51 6, 660. 00 222.31 5,456.54 $79, 893. 64 53,340.00 185, 082. 15 60, 000. 00 222.31 Special funds— stocks and bonds... 39,633.75 45, 090. 29 117,527.36 438, 820. 08 172, 867. 39 729, 214. 83 Publications 1, 848. 27 12,972.38 97, 468. 31 51, 796. 77 $10,990.08 123, 279. 04 51, 796. 77 Special gifts and fees: 1, 623. 67 1, 470. 45 2, 555. 00 12, 502. 91 (3, 358. 43) 30, 290. 11 24,157,748.15 179, 257. 67 4,161,926.82 675. 75 193,806.68 (3, 358. 43) 30, 290. 11 Total special gifts and fees 3,094.12 575. 75 41, 989. 59 4,337,005.72 4,382,665.18 Reinvestment (required by provi- 8,754.83 8,754.83 Total income 131, 224. 58 452,368.21 364, 122. 06 4,347,995.80 5,295,710.65 Sales of securities: Endo\vment funds: 381, 387. 86 381, 387. 86 96,026.43 68, 149. 37 164,175.80 96, 026. 43 381, 387. 86 68, 149. 37 545, 563. 66 5,055.00 5, 055. 00 Total receipts 232,306.01 833,756.07 432,271.43 4,347,995.80 5,846,329.31 DISBURSEMENTS: 36, 898. 36 151,177.41 95, 593. 05 132, 491. 41 10,630.61 161, 808. 02 10, 630. 61 188, 075. 77 95, 593. 05 294, 299. 43 11,045.75 123, 952. 00 134. 997. 75 Research and explorations and related administrative expenses : 23,449.43 3, 320. 88 1, 963. 03 7, 293. 50 1, 739, 730. 72 1,763,189.15 9,691.21 1,328.01 3, 192. 66 6,800 93 18,813.02 3. 291. 04 Other* 2,760.531.82 2,771,017.98 Total research and exploration and related administrative 14,211.88 5, 800. 93 36,026.84 4,500,271.54 4,556,311.19 « This statement does not Include Government Institution. » Includes receipts for IGY proRram. • Includes disbursements for IQY program. appropriations under administrative charge of the REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE 221 CASH BALANCES, RECEIPTS, AND DISBURSEMENTS DURING FISCAL YEAR 1960 '—Continued Restricted funds Unrestricted funds Gifts and grants Total General Freer DISBURSEMENTS— Continued $10, 255. 19 $28, 168. 50 $65, 427. 50 $103,851.19 Bullrtlnss, equlprnfint, and grounds: 12, 680. 08 447. 11 838. 57 1, 038. 35 13, 719. 03 447. 11 838. 57 Total buildings, equipment and 13, 906. 36 1, 038. 35 15. 004. 71 Contractual services: 7, 509. 76 11,618.29 4, 758. 68 23, 886. 73 Supplies and expenses: 13,151.94 1, 788. 20 5, .593. 27 3, 123. 06 5,841.10 18,993.04 593. 00 2, 381. 26 44,5. 50 1, 140. 01 100. 05 881.08 405. 50 6, 038. 83 4, 203. 07 160. 05 881. OS 405. 50 Total supplies and expenses 593. 00 23, 656. 53 8, 873. 30 33, 122. 83 54, 246. 19 395, 238. 38 211, 717. 72 $1, 500, 271. 54 5,161,473.83 Purchases of securities: Endowment funds: 354, 670. 74 354, 670. 74 102,348.14 10.84 72, 635. 86 174,984.00 10.84 102,358.98 354, 670. 74 72, 635. 80 529, 065. 58 156, 605. 17 749, 909. 12 284,353.68 4, 500, 271. 54 5, 691, 139. 41 E.xcess receipts over disbursements . . Cash balance June 30 1059 75, 700. 84 83,846.95 147,917.85 (152, 275. 74) 155, 189. 90 1,631,861.91 1, 787, 051. 81 " 1 The practice of maintaining savings accounts in several of the Washington banks and trust companies has been continued during the past year, and interest on these deposits amounted to $6,304.73. Deposits are made in banks for convenience in collection of checks, and later such funds are withdrawn and deposited in the United States Treasury. Disbursement of funds is made by check signed by the Secretary of the Institution and drawn on the United States Treasury. The Institution gratefully acknowledges gifts and grants from the following : 222 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 19 60 American Institute of Biological Sciences, to defray travel of Dr. Ernest A. Lachner. American Institute of Biological Sciences, to assist in publishing a manuscript on "The Biotic Associations of Cockroaches," by Drs. Louis M. Roth and Edwin R. Willis. American Philosophical Society, to be iised in connection with Dr. Wallace L. Chafe's Indian language studies. American Philosophical Society, to assist in defraying expenses of Dr. William C. Sturtevaut while attending the Sixth International Congress of Anthro- pological and Ethnological Sciences, held in Paris, France. American Philosophical Society, for the study of Comparative Collections of Northern South American materials in European Museums by Drs. Clifford Evans and Betty J. Meggers. American Philosophical Society, to defray expenses of Dr. Henry B. Collins while attending the International Anthropological Congress, Paris, France. Mrs. Jessie W. Armstrong, to the Smithsonian Institution to establish fund to be known as the "Edwin James Armstrong Fund" for use of the Department of Invertebrate Paleontology. Atomic Energy Commission, grant for support of research entitled "Systematic Zoological Research on the Marine Fauna of the Tropical Pacific Area." Atomic Energy Commission, for support of research and study of the Biochem- ical Effects of Ionizing and Nonionizing Radiation on Plant Metabolism during development. Mr, J. Bruce Bredin, additional gift for the Sniithsonian-Bredin Expeditions Fund. Columbia University, grant to defray expenses of Dr. T. Dale Stewart to Baghdad and return, in connection with his work for the Smithsonian Insti- tution. F. E. Compton Company, grant for support in Improvement of the National Air Museum Library. Department of Air Force, for research entitled "Study of Atmospheric Entry and Impact of High Velocity Meteorites." Department of Air Force, additional grant for support of research and planning in connection with manned and unmanned balloon flights. Department of Air Force, additional grant for support of research entitled "The Accretion of Meteorite Material by the Earth." Department of Air Force, additional grant in support of research entitled "Scin- tillation Data on Balloon-Borne Telescope." Department of Army, Ordnance Corps, additional grant for research entitled "Procurement of Satellite Tracking and Orbit." Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, for support of research entitled "Economic System of the Ilerrei'o." Entomological Society of America, to assist in defraying the expenses of Dr. J. F. G. Clarke to Europe in connection with his work for the Smithsonian Institution. General Dynamics Corporation for the Meteorite Fund. Guggenheim Memorial Foundation, Fellowship grant for Dr. Ernest A. Lachner. Mr. E. P. Henderson, gift for the Meteorite Fund. International Business Machines, gift for the purchase of a collection of antique instruments. Jersey Production Research Corporation, additional grant for support of re- search project on Echinoid Spines. Mr. E. A. Link, gift for support of the Marine Biological Project. REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE 223 Link Foundation, gift for support of special publications dealing with aviation and the Smithsonian Institution Collections. Michigan Mineralogical Society, gift to defray travel expenses of Dr. George S. Switzer to attend the annual meeting of the Michigan Mineralogical Society. National Aeronautics and Space Administration, grants for support of the Satel- lite Tracking Program ; astronomical telescope studies. National Aeronautics and Space Administration and the National Science Foun- dation, grant for the "Acquisition of the Beyer Tektite Collection." National Aviation Club, grant for the purpose of purchasing the C. G. B. Stuart Aviation Book Collection. National Geographic Society, grant to help defray expenses in connection with the underwater archeological expedition to Port Royal, Jamaica, under the auspices of the National Geographic Society-Smithsonian Institution. National Geographic Society, additional grant for the continuation of a joint study by the National Geographic Society and Smithsonian Institution on the hoatzin. National Geographic Society, additional grant to cover the preparation of technical drawings of fishes for illustration in the report on the collection of fishes made during the Arnhem Land Expedition. National Science P^'ouudatiou, for support of research entitled "Early Tertiary Mammals of North America." National Science Foundation, for the support of research entitled "A Monograph of the Lichen Genus Parmelia." National Science Foundation, grant for the support of research entitled "Be- havior Patterns of Certain Tropical American Carnivores." National Science Foundation, additional grant for support of research entitled "Metabolic Aspects of the Digestion of Wax." National Science Foundation, additional grant for support of research entitled "A Monograph of Fresh- Water Calanoid Copepoda." National Science Foundation, grant to assist in defraying expenses of Dr. Wil- liam C. Sturtevant while attending the Sixth International Congress of Anthropological and Ethnological Sciences held in Paris, France. National Science Foundation, grant for support of research entitled "The Flora of Fiji" ; for research entitled "Economic System of the Herrero." National Science Foundation, grant for support of research entitled "Mammals of the Southeastern United States." National Science Foundation, grant for partial support of publication for "Classification and Multiplicity of Growth Layers in the Branches of Trees" by Glock, Studhalter, and Agerter. National Science Foundation, grant to assist in defraying expenses of travel of Dr. George S. Switzer to Zurich, Switzerland for the purpose of attending the meeting of the International Mineralogical Association. National Science Foundation, additional grant for the support of research en- titled "Morphology and Paleoecology of Permian Brachiopods." National Science Foundation, additional grant for the support of research en- titled "Comparative Analysis of Behavior in Tropical Birds." Naticmal Science Foundation, additional grant for the support of research en- titled "Taxonomy of the Bamboos." National Science Foundation, additional grant for the support of research en- titled "Monograph of the Cassiduloidea" ; support of research entitled "Studies of World-Wide Fungus Order Ustilaginales." National Science Foundation, additional grant for research entitled "A Taxonomic Study of the Phanerogams of Colombia. 224 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1960 National Science Foundation, grant for the support of research entitled "Sys- tematics of Chilopoda and Diplopoda." National Science Foundation, grant supporting research entitled "Revisionary Study of Blattoides." New York Miueralogical Club, grant to defray expenses of Mr. Paul E. Desautels from Washington, D. C, to New York City and return. Office of Naval Research, additional grants to perform aeronautical research studies ; to perform psychological research studies. Office of Naval Research, additional grant for study concerning the development of a proposal for an institute or laboratory of human performance standards. Office of Naval Research, additional grant for support of research in connection with studies on the marine fauna of the South Pacific Ocean. Office of Naval Research, additional grants to provide expert consultants to advise the Navy Advisory Committee. Office of Naval Research, additional grant for support of research entitled "In- formation on Shark Distribution and the Distribution of Shark Attacks All Over the World." Rochester Academy of Sciences, for the use of Mr. Paul E. Desautels in connec- tion with his work for the Smithsonian Institution. St. Petersburg Shell Club, grant to defray expenses of Dr. Harald Rehder to and from St. Petersburg, Florida. School of Science of the Venezuela Central University, grant for the purpose of purchasing equipment to be used in conducting field work on mammals in Venezuela by Dr. Charles O. Handley, Jr. Mrs. L. Corrin Strong, gift to the Smithsonian Institution Traveling Exhibition Service for the purpose of exhibiting "Norwegian Tapestries" at the Smith- sonian Institution. Mr. Ganson Taggart, bequest to the Smithsonian Institution. Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, grant to defray expenses of Dr. Richard Cifelli on an expedition to the West Indies. For support of the Bio-Sciences Information Exchange : Atomic Energy Commission. Department of the Air Force. Department of the Army. Department of Defense. Department of the Navy. National Science Foundation. Public Health Service. Veterans Administration. Included in the above list of gifts and contributions are reimburs- able contracts. The foregoing report relates only to the private funds of the Institution. The following appropriations were made by Congress for the Government bureaus under the achninistrative charge of the Smith- sonian Institution for the fiscal year 1960 : Salaries and expenses $7, 718, 000. 00 National Zoological Park 1, 165, 200. 00 The appropriation made to the National Gallery of Art (which is a bureau of the Smithsonian Institution) was $1,834,000.00. REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COIVIMITTEE 225 In addition, funds were transferred from other Govenunent agen- cies for expenditure under the direction of the Smithsonian Institu- tion as follows : Working Funds, transferred from the National Park Service, Interior Depart- ment, for arclieological investigations in river basins throughout the United States $122, 055. 00 The Institution also administers a trust fimd for partial support of the Canal Zone Biological Area, located on Barro Colorado Island in the Canal Zone. AUDIT The report of the audit of the Smithsonian Private Funds follows : Washington, D.C, Septemier 26, 1960. The Board of Regents, Smithsonian Institution, Washington 25, D.C. We have examined the statement of private funds of Smithsonian Institution as of June 30, 1960 and the related statement of private funds cash receipts and disbursements for the year then ended. Our examination was made in accord- ance with generally accepted auditing standards, and accordingly included such tests of the accounting records and such other auditing procedures as we con- sidered necessary in the circumstances. Land, buildings, furniture, equipment, works of art, living and other speci- mens and certain sundry property are not included in the accounts of the Insti- tution ; likewise, the accompanying statements do not include the National Gallery of Art and other departments, bureaus and operations administered by the Institution under Federal appropriations. The accounts of the Institution are maintained on the basis of cash receipts and disbursements, with the result that the accompanying statements do not reflect income earned but not collected or expenses incurred but not paid. In our opinion, subject to the matters referred to in the preceding paragraph, the accompanying statement of private funds present fairly the assets, unex- pended funds and endowments of the private funds of Smithsonian Institution at June 30, 1960; further, the accompanying statement of private funds cash receipts and disbursements, which has been prepared on a basis consistent with that of the preceding year, presents fairly the cash transactions of the private funds for the year then ended. Peat, Maewick, Mitchell & Co. Respectfully submitted. (S) Robert V. Fleming, (S) Clarence Cannon, (S) Caryx, p. Haskins, Executive Committee. GENERAL APPENDIX to the SMITHSONIAN REPORT FOR 1960 227 ADVERTISEMENT The object of the General xVppendix to the Annual Report of the Smithsonian Institution is to furnish brief accounts of scientific dis- coA^ery in particular directions; reports of investigations made by staff members and collaborators of the Institution ; and memoirs of a gen- eral character or on special topics that are of interest or value to the numerous correspondents of the Institution. It has been a prominent object of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution from a very early date to enrich the annual report required of them by law with memoirs illustrating the more remarkable and important developments in physical and biological discovery, as well as showing the general character of the operations of the Institution; and, during the greater part of its history, this purpose has been carried out largely by the publication of such papers as would possess an interest to all attracted by scientific progress. In 1880, induced in part by the discontinuance of an annual sum- mary of progress which for 30 years previously had been issued by well-knoAvn private publishing firms, the Secretary had a series of abstracts prepared by competent collaborators, showing concisely the prominent features of recent scientific progress in astronomy, geology, meteorology, physics, chemistry, mineralogy, botany, zoology, and anthropology. This latter plan was continued, though not altogether satisfactorily, down to and including the year 1888. In tlie report of 1889, a return w^as made to the earlier method of presenting a miscellaneous selection of papers (some of them original) embracing a considerable range of scientific investigation and discus- sion. This method has been continued in the present report for 1960. Reprints of the various papers in the General Appendix may be obtained, as long as the supply lasts, on request addressed to tlie Edi- torial and Publications Division, Smithsonian Institution, Wash- ington 25, D.C. 228 The Science of Yesterday, Today, and Tomorrow* ^7 W. F. G. SwANN 2 INTRODUCTION It is within a period of less tlian three-quarters of a century, a period less than the span of life which many of my audience have experienced, that one of the world's most eminent men of science volunteered the idea that the discovery of nature's laws was ended, that the brain of man had solved the riddle of the universe, and that science was dead. It is true that there were a few unopened, or partially opened, boxes which had come to light, and which seemed to contain things of some interest, but is was generally supposed that these things were, in prin- ciple, much the same as the things to be found outside. The contents of the boxes seemed to be in rather messy state. However, it was generally believed that if they were cleaned up and put in order, they would reveal nothing new. The job of cleaning them up seemed to invite little interest, so for the time being, they were left as they were. And so, even as the great surgeon, having perfomied his major operation, leaves to a humble assistant the task of cleaning up and removing the stitches, so the man of science felt that his work was done, and that he might leave to lesser lights the task of polishing up the contents of those boxes and of finding out how they fitted to- gether to useful ends. But when the boxes were opened, it was found that many of them contained things of a nature quite unexpected. The things which were in the boxes did not behave according to the common sense of the day. They had to do with such phenomena as gases excited to emit light by electric discharge. By and large, they had to do with glowing things. If in those days there had been any radio tubes, they would 1 The Charles S. Reddlnj? Lecture, delivered at the stated meeting of the Franklin In- stitute on December 16, 1959. Dr. Swann was honored at this meeting for his 32 years as director of the Bartol Research Foundation. Reprinted by permission from Journal of the Franklin Institute, vol. 269, No. 3, March 1960. 2 Director emeritus, Bartol Research Foundation of the Franklin Institute, Swarthmore, Pa., and a senior staff adviser for the Franklin Institute Laboratories for Research and Development. 229 230 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 19 60 undoubtedly have been found in the boxes, together with all the para- phernalia of modern electronics. Indeed, many of the materials necessary to bring to light this important realm were there, but they were constructed on a scale too small to be perceived by the eye of man, so they passed notice as useless debris. In this debris would have been found the substances out of which today we make transistors which supply your hearing aids. In the boxes would have been found things which, by proper assembly, would have produced X-rays. Some of them would have contained substances like radium and all the multitude of atoms which today we know as isotopes ; or at least, they would have contained the wherewithal to produce these things which today play such an important part in medicine and industry. In one big box there would have been found the smi itself uttering complaints that the man of science had given him no guarantee that he would be able to go on emitting light practically forever, that the physicist had provided no security for the maintenance of his bank accomit of energy, and that without it he was in danger of degenerat- ing into celestial bankruptcy. In those boxes would have been found all the ingredients necessary to produce atomic bombs and provide for the release of atomic energj^ in general. In them would have been found, in a form too small for the eye to see, all the mechanisms necessary to provide for the doings of the greater universe, for the behavior of the stars and the great galaxies of space with all their mysteries, including the continuous production of cosmic rays, and the like. Truly, those men of science of three-quarters of a century ago, who left those boxes to the care of underlings for the unraveling of their contents, as the surgeon leaves to his assistants the task of cleaning up the patient, truly these great men of science died with a huge, if un- known, responsibility upon their shoulders. They are almost for- tunate in having died before they were suspected of having left so much unfinished while they had declared that all was, indeed, finished. Since man attained the stage of mentality in which he felt the desire to think about himself in relation to his surroundings, he acquired the ambition to understand nature. The basis of such an understanding is an elusive thing. It is by no means obvious. To put the matter in a nutshell, we may perhaps say that, in the past, to understand has been, for man, the ability to see in new phenomena which he studies, nothing more than the operation of the same principles that he has al- ready accepted in the things which he has previously studied. THE SCIENCE OF YESTERDAY And so, in the beginning, the tilings which man learned to accept were the behavioi-s of beings like himself. Thus, in order to under- SCIENCE, YESTERDAY, TODAY, TOMORROW — SWANN 231 stand how lie and his surroundings could be controlled from the out- side, he invented beings like himself who, indeed, had the power to control these things, even as he and his fellows had, on a smaller scale, power to control those who served them. Reversing the policy cited in Holy Writ, man invented these omnipotent beings in his own image, and with many of his own vices and shortcomings, as well as with his beneficent characteristics. The gods were angry, and they hurled thunderbolts. The gods were pleased, and they showered the earth with the blessings of spring. Anger and pleasure are such com- mon attributes of mankind that they seem to call for no explanation in themselves. As regards a wider range of characteristics, the capri- ciousness of the gods, the uncertain temperament of the gods, and so forth, man, in seeking a basis for the acceptance of these things as normal, had to do no more than think of all the prima donnas of his age, and indeed of all the ladies of his own acquaintance. Alas, in those days there were no psychiatrists to analyze man's emotions as the outcome of more fundamental "causes"; and so mankind was con- tent to "understand" in terms of the laws which governed his primi- tive feelings and experiences. Early in his history. Homo sapiens became conscious of the efforts of his muscles, and the need for exertion in order that things should be accomplished. To bring stationary things into a state of motion, man found that he had to do something; and in the doing of it he became conscious of effort, so that there arose a vague concept of force. However, to push anything and to make it move, one had to come into contact with it. A man could not, by merely flexing his muscles, cause something at a distance to start moving. The force had to be transmitted from point to point in order to become effective. As a mat- ter of fact, insofar as there is any difficulty in understanding motion at all, there is just as much difficulty in understanding it through the transmission of force from point to point in a medium as there is in understanding action at a distance. The late Sir Oliver Lodge once remarked that it is as yet an inexplicable fact that when one end of a rod is pushed, the other end moves, to which observation PUNCH replied that it is also an inexplicable fact that when one end of a man is trodden upon, the other end shouts. However, the layman readily accepted the philosophy that what the eye cannot see the mind need not trouble about. And so, the transmission of force through minute distances seemed to present much less of an obstacle than did its transmission over great distances. THE AETHER. AND THE TRANSMISSION OF FORCE The motions of the heavenly bodies became explained in the hands of Newton as motions which should be thought of as caused by 579421—61 IS 232 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 19 60 "forces" whose origins were in the heavenly bodies themselves; and while Newton himself would probably have taken a more philosopliic view of the meaning of this statement than would many of his fol- lowers, those who wished to "understand," and had faith in the meaning of such understanding, felt, for the reasons I have already stated, unhappy about the acceptance of such a philosophy. They demanded some kind of a medium permeating all space between the heavenly bodies, a medium which could transmit the desired force. Later, this medium was charged with the duties of every conceivable kind of phenomenon by which one body appeared to influence an- other body at a distance. It became charged, among other things, with transmitting the light and heat of the sun to earth, and later it was charged with the transmission of radio waves. It was natural to try and understand this medium as something like a solid or a liquid, or a gas of our common experience, but alas, the demands on it did not harmonize with any of these characterizations. And so this me- dimn, this "aether," as it was called, remained as a mystery. As long as one did not inquire too much about the mechanisms of its activities, it served as a balm to the conscience of common sense in seeming to relieve us of the terrors of action at a distance. Many were the attempts to provide inner mechanisms by which man could under- stand, in terms of the common sense of the day, all that seemed to be happening; but the mechanisms for different activities were incon- sistent and all that remained was the apparent potentiality of trans- mitting something from one place to another with a finite velocity, even though one did not know what the something was w^hich was transmitted. It was with this dilemma in mind that, some years ago, I defined the aether as a "medium devised by man for the purpose of transmitting his misconceptions from one place to another." It was during the period of prohibition, and I added an observation to the effect that "of all subtle fluids invented for the stimulation of the imagination, it is the only one which, so far, has not been prohibited." Later, alas, it also became prohibited, when the theory of relativity came upon the scene, declaring that it had no substance in reality, was inconsistent in philosophy, and was a useless encumbrance to the brain which tried to use it. And so, it came about that insofar as it was meaningful to speak of one body as "acting upon" another, one had to accept "action at a distance" as something w^hich, while dubiously respectable, was not a thing to be talked about in polite scientific society. I tliink, however, that we must realize that with his banishing of the aether to the realms of nonsense, man took one of his first steps in removing his ideas from the realm of popular understanding in terms of the everyday experiences of the times. SCIENCE, YESTERDAY, TODAY, TOMORROW — SWANN 233 THE PRINCIPLE OF PKEDETERMINATION In tliis evaporation of some of the elements wliicli were part and parcel of the intuitive thinking of a hundred years ago, there yet re- mained one principle wliich man was loath to discard. This principle invoked the idea that, at any rate as regards the inanimate world, that which is happening now determines that which wall happen just a little later. And that which happens a little later determines that which will happen still a little later, and so on, ad infinitum. It is the principle of predetermination. It had its most explicit exempli- fication when science, through the activities of Newton and his con- temporaries, described the motions of the heavenly bodies in terms of the now well-known laws of astronomy. The concentration was on what we call the laws of motion of the bodies. These took the form of what are called the differential equations of motion. How- ever, it is sufficient to say that these laws were such that, if you spec- ify what exists now, they tell you what will be found just now — at the next moment, that is — and so on, ad infinitum. If you asked what must be expressed now, the answer, in terms of Newton's laws, is to the effect that you must assign a position and velocity for each one of the bodies whose motion you wish to discuss. In terms of these positions and velocities, the future is determined completely in terms of the present. In order that you should not derive too much comfort from this statement, however, I must remark that if you should specify the positions and velocities of the bodies a thou- sand years hence, those laws will equally well serve to determine where they are now. It is hardly polite to destroy your comfort in the belief that the present determines the future by asking you to accept a doctrine to the effect that the future also determines the present. I once worried myself about the problem of why, if I am to understand memory in terms of the present as determined by the past, I cannot also remember the future, if the laws work both ways. The great success of the classical astronomy of Newton and the discovery of the atomic nature of matter and of the fact that the atoms themselves are composed of what we call particles, made it almost in- evitable that man should try to understand atoms and their doings in a crude way by picturing them as models of the solar system itself on an enormously reduced scale ; and so, some three-quarters of a century ago, there arose atomic theories based on this idea and carrying with them, therefore, in principle, the laws of predetermination. Perhaps I should pause for a moment to state what, in the last analysis, is indi- cated by the acceptance of such a principle. The matter is illustrated by the story of a man and his slave. It appears that there was an ancient noble whose belief in predeter- mination was very firm. And the noble had a slave who stole some of 234 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 196 his master's possessions. For this sin, the noble made preparations to chastise his slave. However, the slave, being of a wily and ingenious disposition, said : "My master, you must know that I am not responsible for this sin which I have committed ; for according to the philosophy to which you subscribe, it was preordained that I should steal this, your possession." However, the master replied: "Yes, my slave, that is indeed true ; but by the same token, it was also preordained that I should beat you for your offense." I commend tliis principle to those who have charge of the destiny of youthful delinquents. Anyone who subscribes to the principle of predetermination, and who is confronted with a situation in which a system suddenly departs from the course predicted for it by the laws assumed, would have but two views of the matter open to him. He could deny the truth of the laws, or he could regard the occurrence as a miracle. This is, indeed, no more than a crystallization of the meaning of the word "miracle." THE SCIENCE OF TODAY THE MIRACLE OF ATOMIC SCIENCE Now, in opening up the boxes of which I have spoken earlier, it was found that those things therein which were pertinent to the structures of atoms and molecules do not behave according to the principle of predetermination. They do not behave according to that smooth running of things which science had come to idealize. Every change which the atom experiences is a sudden one, with no clear-cut relation to the past, and no promise as to the future. Every change is a miracle in the sense in which I have sought to define that word. Moreover, it seemed, to most physicists, impossible to devise any laws consistent with the facts and according to which changes in atoms and in the realms immediately dominated by atoms occurred in any strictly pre- dictable manner. The best that could be done was to invoke the con- cept of averages and to devise laws which told the chance that any particular occurrence would happen under certain assigned conditions. The laws were analogous to those which the insurance specialist uses when he predicts the fraction of all the people over, say, 50 years of age who will die in the next year. He cannot predict what will happen to any individual, but he can predict with considerable cer- tainty what will happen to groups of individuals. In a sense, we may say that the whole quantum theory of today is a crystallization of the best laws which man has been able to devise for describing the nature of miraculous happenings. Of course, you may well say that if the insurance man should consult the physician of each indi- vidual and should order continual tests to be made of the state of health of each individual, then he could approximate with some cer- tainty to accurate predictions as regards the individuals. You may SCIENCE, YESTERDAY, TODAY, TOMORROW — SWANN 235 say that there is really no miracle about this matter. Ilis uncertainty as regards the individual is simply something founded upon his ignorance of the complete story and of the impracticability of sup- plementing his knowledge to the end of making detailed predictions. And so you might think that the same thing would apply to the atom, and that, if you would only work hard enough to invent a more complete set of laws to govern its actions, the complete life history of every atom would be known and there would be no need to invoke miracles. However, physicists have w^orked very hard in an endeavor to do something of this kind, but without success, and the nature of their thinking is such as to convince many of them that complete suc- cess could never be attained, and that, as regards the atomic realm, we shall always have to put up with miracles. And now we are confronted with a curious psychological paradox. The average man of science, secure in the conviction that, as regards matter in bulk, nothing miraculous ever happens, is perfectly content to accept such happenings in the atomic world. Miracles on the scale of size of anything whicli we can see would be an abomination to him, but hap- penings which he cannot see, which the mind can only think about, but which he believes to occur, are acceptable. However, he avoids clash with his conscience by refusing to give them a name. Perhaps a still more curious thing is that Avitli the advance of experimental techniques, man can actually observe certain of the miracles of the individual atoms ; but here he feels his activities so far removed from anything to do with mankind that again his philosophical conscience makes no protest. I feel it quite safe to say that if I should describe to any intelligent layman who was unacquainted with mathematical physics the prin- ciples according to which our so-called laws of atomic and nuclear structure operate; and if I could get my message across in a very short time, so that the layman would not become inveigled step by step into this way of thinking without encountering at each stage more than his philosophic conscience could swallow, I think that if I could do this, the layman would have to admit that the occurrences per- mitted in nuclear physics are, in terms of his normal criteria of common sense, more abstract and bizarre than any occult phenomenon whicli had been said to have occurred and which, under tliat name, he would probably dismiss immediately as evidence of insanity in those who subscribe to it. During the last three-quarters of a century, science has brought forth many marvelous things which seem commonplace today and which have not startled mankind unduly at any stage of their development because their development has come upon us gradually. If, a hundred years ago, someone had awakened in the morning to find 236 AJsnsruAL report Smithsonian institution, i9 60 in evidence an apparatus which enabled him to hear the voice of a man speaking in Paris ; if, as he listened, he saw an airplane overhead, and if, on going into the street, he found vehicles dashing about without the aid of horses, he would surely think that he had come upon an age of miracles as remarkable as any of which he had read in the past. However, these things are no longer miracles to him because the scientists have told him that they know how it all happens; but when he gets down to ultimate fundamentals, even the scientist him- self has to base his understanding upon processes which, if he could suddenly convey their nature to the layman, would have to be regarded by that individual as miracles in terms of his natural criteria of com- mon sense. It is the miracles of the atomic and subatomic world which determine the activities of things on a larger scale, where their activities come to the attention of all of us, as symbolized by that docile entity "the man in the street." This man hears of the atomic bomb, so like an enlarged version of one of the urns of the Arabian Nights, urns from which, as the result of proper incantations, terrify- ing beings emerged. Pie learns that two apparently inert pieces of uranium of the same kind, on being brought suddenly into close proximity, explode in a manner such as to emulate all the furies of hell, pouring forth all sorts of evil things in the form of poisonous radioactive radiations and the like. It is as though these two pieces of metal, on being brought together, became infuriated by each other's presence and, in their anger, revealed all the evil that was within them. Indeed, from the standpoint of overall results, the performance of these two innocent pieces of uranium surpasses, in immeasurable degree, all the mysteries described in the immortal book of Arabian fairy tales. And our man in the street, on witnessing the atomic bomb, might well say "Here, at last, I find a real miracle — a miracle which can be repeated at will." But the men of science tell him that they know all about what has happened and that there is no miracle. In this they play some deception on that la3^man, for, if they could reveal to him the picture of those more subtle atomic processes which are involved, he would be likely to exclaim "But these processes in terms of which you explain the bomb are, to my way of thinking, miracles themselves." And the man of science, if honest with himself, will have no choice but to reply, "Yes, my friend, that is indeed true to your way of thinking; but to me, who has lived with these subatomic phenomena so long, the plienomcna have ceased to cany with them the stigma of the word 'miracle.' And so," says the man of science, "I ask you to be content in my statement that all is really well in the philosophy of the matter. Then you will not be worried unless you think too much. I shall be content on account of the fundamentality of my knowledge and the broadness of my philosophy, while you shall seek refuge for contentment in the depths of your ignorance." SCIENCE, YESTERDAY, TODAY, TOMORROW — 3WANN 237 And so, after a time, the man in the street learns to regard the be- havior of the atomic bomb as something not too much to be marveled at, and he accepts it as he has accepted radio or as, at an earlier time, he had accepted the ordinary phenomena of electricity, the running of streetcars as the result of something peculiar happening in copper cables which, by some mysterious means, are said to transmit electric power. He accepts these things as in a still earlier epoch he accepted the motions of the heavenly bodies as phenomena not to be denied, phenomena familiar in the experience of all, but j)henomena which did not seem to weld together with the idea of action through contact, which the naive intuition of the day seemed to regard as a natural haven of contentment in the understanding of all things. Now, in spite of all I have said to persuade you that we live in a world of miracles, you will perhaps be unhappy about my definition of that term. You may prefer to regard a miracle as a thing of such unusual occurrence, that the fact of its having occurred at all is open to doubt. You may then maintain that atomic phenomena are not miracles because they are always occurring, and their continual occur- rence provides, in its totality, for the phenomena evident around us. If you say this, I fear that the Lord hath delivered you into mine hands ; for in this sense, practically all the phenomena of the atomic world would indeed be miracles to any supposed inhabitants of the atom. Consider the emission of an X-ray from an atom. Even if, in imag- ination, you lived on one of the atoms which compose the part of the X-ray tube from which the X-rays come, so rare would be the emission of a ray from an individual atom that you would be put in an atomic lunatic asylum if, as a resident of such an atom, you maintained that any such phenonemon had ever occurred. Only because there are so many atoms does the physicist observe a strong emission of X-rays from the X-ray tube. And so, what is a miracle to the resident of the atom is no longer a miracle to him who observes a multitude of atoms. A similar remark applies to practically every phenomenon in atomic physics. A cosmic ray, passing through this room, detaches an electron from an atom here and there, and by observing this phenomenon we investi- gate and measure the rays. Yet, to the individual atom, this theft of an electron by a cosmic ray is such a rare event that the chance of its happening to any particular atom in the period of, let us say a day, is no more than the chance that one of you would be murdered in that day if, with the earth at its present population, only one murder were committed in 300 years. And so it is with all the happenings of atomic physics. And yet it is these miraculous happenings which, in their totality, produce all the interesting things which our coarse-grained senses observe. And 238 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 19 60 to these coarse-grained senses there is no miracle ; everything happens smoothly with apparent certainty of prediction. HARMONIZATION OF DIFFERENT DOMAINS OF SCIENCE So far I have concentrated on laws and phenomena associated with what is customarily called the realm of physics. Even here I have to admit that theoretical physics is at present in rather a messy state. When, however, we contemplate the wider realms of knowledge em- bracing biology and what we have recently learned in astronomy, there is much to be desired. Our know^ledge of nature is like that of a world of little islands and countries, separated from each other, each being governed, apparently, by its own laws, with no very satisfactory rela- tionship between the laws of one country and those of another. In the affairs of men one can tolerate a situation of this kind. One does not expect the laws of all nations to agree, although one has a hope that in time they may. In science, however, we have sufficient respect for the design of the universe to believe that there is a unified scheme covering all realms of phenomena, and indeed, in the last analysis, the afl'airs of mankind as a particular case. The idealistic philosopher will not cease to search for such a scheme and it is right that he should do so. If and when he succeeds, however, it may well be that we shall find that the scheme which he has found is of very little practical use. As a matter of fact, a very general scheme covering as particular cases a wide range of phenomena dare not, in the nature of things, be very specific about any one of the phenomena. It can only be specific about things which are common to all the phenomena; and of these there may be very few. The very general theory will be like a very evasive politician. As an active member of a group devoted to econ- omy in public affairs, you come to him and ask what he has to say about expenditure on armaments, hoping perhaps to get a detailed budget, stating how much may be assigned to this and to that, and how much may be saved from armaments for peaceful projects. However, the reply you get is something like this: "Our expenditures should be such as to maintain a stable and safe economy which re- flects security in all that pertains to our lives." Well, you don't get very much out of that; and as you leave, and as you pass through the door, there comes a man fanatically devoted to military preparedness who wishes to ask about budgets designed to secure the most up-to- date equipment for all that pertains to Avar; and on posing his ques- tion, the politician again replies: "Our expenditures should be such as to maintain a stable and safe economy which reflects security in all that pertains to our lives." Any statement which has to cover a wide range of circumstances cannot, in the nature of things, say much which applies to all ; and indeed, when the range of circumstances is infinitely wide, the safest SCIENCE, YESTERDAY, TODAY, TOMORROW — SWANN 239 tiling is to say nothing. However, if you are expert in tlie art of oratory, you will be able to say it with force and conviction. Let us consider, as an example, a physicist who studies the science of electrodynamics and gravitation separately and later desires to mold them into a common theory. It will be unnecessary for us to think of gravitation in the light of the general theory of relativity. The old Newtonian concept will suffice. Our physicist studies the laws of the heavens and finds that they conform very well to the Newtonian law of gravitation. I point out to him that some of the celestial bodies are magnets and that their attractions for one another will be modified in form and degree by this circumstance. The physicist replies quite correctly that the phenomenon is of very small numerical magnitude and that he pro- poses to neglect it. Next day, I find the physicist in his laboratory studying the attraction of magnets and of electrically charged bodies for one another. I point out that these bodies also attract gravita- tionally, and that he should take this into account. Again he replies, quite correctly, that in these experiments the gravitational effects are so small compared with the electromagnetic effects that he is justified in neglecting them. In other words, in one problem of the universe, our physicist neglects the phenomena which are the whole source of interest in another problem, in which other problem, more- over, the phenomena dominant in the first problem are now negligible. Now neglect of the small gravitational effects in the electromagnetic experiments is justifiable so long as one maintains the principle that the gravitational effect is, in actuality, there. If the gravitational effect is omitted, even in the formulation of the general principles of the subject, on the basis of its being too small to detect in electro- magnetic experiments, and if the laws of these experiments are, there- fore, placed on the statute books without it, they will possess no power to recognize it in any other phenomena of nature where the circumstances may be different. They will, in fact, be in danger of actually denying its existence in any field whatever, and of rendering its subsequent discovery in the astronomical field a phenomenon puzzling to comprehend, and apparently antagonistic to the science of electrodynamics. Now, if a general theory embracing electrodynamics and gravita- tion is provided, it may take care of problems in which gravitational forces and electrodynamical forces are equally important even though nature may present us with no such cases where they are of equal importance. Such a general theory is able to extrapolate itself to one end to a case where gravitation is unimportant and electro- dynamics is all important and to extrapolate itself also to the other end to a case where the relative importance of these respective phe- 240 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1960 nomena is reversed. The theory thus provides a bridge by means of which the two extreme cases are seen to be not inharmonious, where- as individual theories for each case, formuh^ted on the basis of all that experiment can reveal, would appear at first sight mutually antagonistic. However, the language of the bridge which spans electrodynamics and astronomy may not be very simple when asked to speak the story of either of these subjects separately. If I concentrate on the domain which is astronomy, I shall tend to paint pictures and make models characteristic of that end of the bridge, pictures which emphasize very strongly to my intuition the salient phenomena of astronomy, but pictures which would have to become more and more out of focus as I walked across the bridge to the realm of electrodynamics. And when I reached this realm, I would find them completely out of focus and unable to convey to me any meaning at all. On the other hand, if I start at the end of the bridge which is electrodynamics, and do the same kind of thing, I shall paint pictures and make models appropriate to the most important phenomena characteristic of that end. And these pictures will, in turn, become more and more hazy as I cross the bridge to the end concerned with astronomy. If I am a philosopher, and willing to realize the limitations of my pictures at both ends of the bridge, I shall not be disturbed by their becoming hazy as I cross from one end to the other. However, if I am a nonphilosopliical astronomer, the pictures which I have painted, and the models which I have created to understand my subject will be very fundamental to me ; and if I tamper with them my mind will protest that what I am doing produces nonsense. A similar thing will happen for the nonphilosophic student of electrodynamics at the other end of the bridge. He will create his pictures and the elements of his creation will be for him the basis of reasonable understanding. Thus while the philosopher will be able to cross the bridge in contentment in either direction, adjusting himself to the scenery on the way, the nonphilosophic astronomer and the non- philosophic student of electrodynamics will feel that their realms are quite distinct and that the laws of one subject have no connection with those of the other. "\"\liile the general formulation of the philosopher will extrapolate harmoniously, both ways, from one end of the bridge to the other, the more specific pictures and models appropriate to the two ends will not extrapolate, for the elements of these pictures and models which are prominent in the phenomena at one end may be of negligible importance to the phenomena at the other end. And yet, at each end of the bridge, the philosophically imperfect pictures appropriate to that end may be more useful than the gener- alized picture painted by the philosopher. Thus, 300 years ago, many believed that light was composed of rays which traveled like arrows SCIENCE, YESTERDAY, TODAY, TOMORROW — SWANN 241 from source to image. Later came the wave picture of light, and later still the picture characteristic of the quantum theory. However, even today, the optician who insisted on making spectacles with philo- sophic regard to all the features of the quantum theory would soon go out of business. No; the optician makes his spectacles with no thoughts in mind other than those of his forerunners who thought en- tirely in terms of rays for all optical phenomena 300 years ago. It becomes increasingly important that the physicist, who has attained success in much of his specialized field by invoking certain principles, should not fail to inquire as to the extent to which those principles may play a leading role in other domains in which, perhaps, as yet they have not been utilized. THE ROLE OF PATTERN The atomic physicist has been brought up to tliink in terms of par- ticles with what he calls forces between them. He learned to do this in the early birth of astronomy and has clung to the procedure. In the beginning the procedure was to seek the laws of motion of the particles. Thus, if, in astronomy, one gave the positions and velocities of the heavenly bodies at some instant, the laws were such as to spell out step by step how each of them moved ; and in terms of those positions and velocities originally assigned, tell the inevitable story of what happens subsequently. In terms of positions and velocities taken as starting points, the system was one of predetermination. All motions calculable in this way, and consistent with some initially assigned sets of positions and velocities, were regarded as possible. Of course, different starting points resulted in very different developments. In some cases we should realize a body like a sun with other bodies traveling in circles or ellipses around it. In other cases, we should have bodies coming in from outer space, visiting the sun for a brief period, and returning to infinity by other paths. In still other cases, bodies would interweave their ways in complicated paths among their fellows. There were, in fact, innumerable i^att-erns which could evolve from different starting points, and each of these patterns had its own peculiarity mherent in its own particular starting point. Thus, all sorts of different astronomical universes were possible insofar as the motions of the bodies which con- stituted them were concerned. However, the custom was not to con- cern oneself too much with the patterns as fundamental, but rather to regard them merely as the consequences of the particular positions and velocities which, by chance, had been originally specified. When science came to regard atoms as groups of particles, the same kind of procedures was envisaged ; althougli the laws of motion of the particles were spelled out in different fashions when other things like electromagnetic radiations became involved and claimed a place for 242 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1960 the harmonization of such things as light, X-rays, wireless radiations, and so forth. And as science advanced, particularly in the atomic realm, it became evident that the theoretical procedures born of astronomy were becom- ing increasingly unsuccessful in providing a description of all that happened. It became evident that the procedure which was likely to work was a procedure in which one concentrated more on inquiring as to the patterns which can exist in nature, patterns of motions of par- ticles, in the first instance, and later, patterns of more abstract things which the physicist called "psi functions." The old laws of motion of particles formerly occupied the central stage of our interest. Any pattern to which they led could be regarded as permissible ; and of the permissible patterns, there was an infinite variety. In the new era of atomic philosophy what remained of the old laws of motions of things was relegated to the service of limiting the patterns which could occur. The fundamental duty of these old laws, as dressed in their new garb, was to declare as meaningless all patterns but a limited set, the set which could be evolved out of them. The fundamental bricks of nature's structure were patterns which, bom of these laws, dictated the things which could occur as distinct from those which could not occur. The bricks of nature — the atoms, the molecules — were, in principle, more like a set of oriental rugs than minute astronomical systems. These rugs, indeed, were only symbolic and with them there went a scheme of interpretation of their significance. There is a faint analogy between these rugs and the oriental rugs which adorn your houses, for I believe it is a fact that the various patterns and subpatterns in these rugs are created with interpretable meanings. And so, in science, what had formerly been laws of motions of par- ticles were transformed to laws which determined what patterns could exist in nature, and with this scheme of things there went a key for the interpretation of the patterns. It was indeed, a far cry from one who thought to understand these laws of patterns in the sense in which, perhaps, he may have thought he understood the laws of astronomy. If you ask a maker of oriental rugs in what sense he understands the meaning of the rugs, he may rightly reply : "I do not have the problem of understanding why these rugs exist. I and my forerunners created the designs ourselves, but we have endeavored to weave into them a symbolic meaning which reflects the relationships of things in the world around us. Why these things should be and why that which happens does happen, we know not. Our function is that of system- atic catalogers of events, and our rugs are the symbolic catalogs." Now, I do not mean to say that the citizens of Arabia who make rugs would say everything that I have put into tlieir moutlis if I started with them a discussion on the matter. All I maintain is that SCIENCE, YESTERDAY, TODAY, TOMORROW — SWANN 243 they might have said it; and if, in the saying of it, they had sought to develop a systematic scheme symbolizing the ways of the atomic world, instead of the limited domain of living things and the immedi- ate elements of their experiences, hope, love, fear, and so forth, they might have been on the way to doing something rather similar to what the atomic physicist is doing today. Of course, the atomic physicist has at his disposal that great logical scheme of mathematics which he can use freely in his designs, and he is not limited to the utilization of simple elements of geometry, I have spoken of the patterns of atomic structure as being abstract tlimgs distinct from pictures of particles and other material things which may be around. However, the patterns appropriate to groups of atoms which constitute tlie things we see, come, in some of their manifestations, to assume actual shapes of things in the elementary meaning of that word. And so, today, we see patterns, born in the understanding of atoms, extending themselves into combinations of atoms — to molecules. Here the pattern is as yet unobservable to the eye, and its abstract form must be inferred from chemical behavior. But from molecules, pattern extends itself into large structures, into crystals where form is evident in that which can be perceived by the eye. And in this domain of crystals, pattern provides a rich harvest of phenomena which, in the role known as that of semiconductors, has, within the last two decades, revolutionized the world of elec- tronics, and here man f omid that his colossal achievement in inventing the radio tube and all that goes with it, was already anticipated and beaten by nature in providing what we now call transistors, which reduce in size and increase in compactness all such electronic devices. Pattern has always been evident on a large scale in biological struc- tures, but now we find it playing a fundamental role, not only in things which can readily be seen, but in the seeds of life itself, in the chromosomes of the cells whose behavior is so vital in cell division, and in the transmission of hereditary characteristics. And through such processes, we may, in time, learn to comprehend that crowning achievement of pattern to be found in man himself, an achievement in which a single germ cell contains in itself a pattern which insures that the being to which it grows shall duplicate, not only the general form, but many of the characteristics of his ancestors. The substance of tlie individual dies several times during what we call the span of his life, but pattern goes on from generation to generation ; and even an abnormality in the being, a crooked finger, or a prominent jaw formation, can survive in its pattern for a thousand years. One thing about man, even as he is evident to those around him, goes far toward being immortal. It is pattern. 244 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 19 60 RELATION BETWEEN THE SCIENCES OF YESTERDAY AND TODAY To return to the title of this address, the science of yesterday was largely the evolution of blind discovery of phenomena, the discovery of fire, the discovery of the potentialities of the wheel, the ingenious com- binations of circumstances and principles, which were ever before us, to the use of man. There was another crude but nevertheless practical and extremely ingenious ordering of the things of nature in the systems of laws formulated by Newton and Galileo, and later by the giants of science of the 19th century, culminating in a sensing of the potentiali- ties of the newly discovered phenomena of electricity. These develop- ments led to the formulation of the general principles of electrical engineering, the realization of the dynamo, the electric motor, and later wireless telegraphy, and so forth. Then, starting toward the end of the 19th century, came an era of new interests. Experimental researches resulted in the discovery of phenomena not continually evident to the eye of man, phenomena which could only be brought into existence by the efforts of his researchers. The behavior of the planets, the general phenomena which govern mechanical machines, were always displayed before mankind and awaited only the exercise of man's ingenuity to harmonize them, and use them to his service when possible. The phenomena of electrical engineering of three- quarters of a century ago were not tilings evident to the eye until researches ferreted them out and organized them into purposeful activity. The later developments beginning toward the end of the 19th century concerned the contents of the boxes of which I have spoken earlier. They concerned the discovery of the electron, the proton, X-rays, and allied phenomena of atomic behavior. These things were completely unevident to the eye of man until research forced them out of hiding and caused them to reveal their activities in newly created devices which would not have existed except for man's activity. Having become released from their bondage of obscurity, it became clear that these strange new things had, all along, been playing a part in phenomena which had been available to man's viewing from time immemorial. Up to this time, the laws of chemistry were largely empirical as were the laws of biology. The laws of what we call physical astronomy, as distinct from those of celestial mechanics, were in a very scrappy state as regards consistency of understanding, and the things of greatest interest had not forced themselves spon- taneously upon man's notice. However, the development of the great telescopes and allied equipment presented an entirely new challenge for the understanding of things and behaviors vastly different in both scale and nature from those which, up to that time, had been the only things displayed for man's curiosity. And it came to pass that the new discoveries in connection with atomic laws went far toward pro- SCIENCE, YESTERDAY, TODAY, TOMORROW — SWANN 245 viding for these things an understanding which would have been im- possible without them. These same discoveries of the atomic realm did much to provide a more complete picture of what was going on in chemistry, and even in biology. THE SCIENCE OF TOMORROW And here we stand today. We have a consciousness of vast ac- complislmaent in the interplay of what we call fundamental experi- mental research and fundamental theoretical research. Much har- mony has been brought into tilings which would otherwise be obscure ; and yet, the returns of the harvest of discovery have tended to re- veal so much more to be fitted mto the scheme and have given evi- dence of so much more yet to be discovered, that the expected labors of the future may well outweigh all those of the past. And what direction may these labors be expected to take in this era of the future — in tliis science of tomorrow ? Wliile there is much yet to be done in correlating and enriching all that is known about what we call the material world, I feel that before long, we shall have to face the problem of the nature of life and of all that goes with it, if real progress is to be made. We can- not forever keep the laws of dead matter separated from those of liv- ing things; for after all, everything that happens as the result of our eiforts in the utilization of what we have already learned must be initiated by the mind of man. I can imagine the heavens to go on their courses without any attention from mankind. I can be happy in the thought of a contmual process of activity which, in its gross aspects at any rate, follows the kind of deterministic behavior which, a hundred years ago, might have been thought to be the "way of life" of all nature. But if, today, I make an atomic bomb which does drastic things, it is I who formed the decision to make it; and in so doing, I interfere with what would have happened had I not made this decision. At tliis point, the mind of man seizes upon the otherwise smooth running of tilings, and, in some way, that which is in my mind interlocks with inanimate nature to direct its course. THE ROLE OF NEW ENTITIES And in facing the necessity of bringing harmony into realms which today stand apart, what has the experience of the past taught us ? We have a clue in what has happened in the domain of atomic struc- ture itself. There was a time when all we had to work with were atoms regarded as indivisible things, without any properties other than were provided by empiricism as demanded by the laws of chemis- try. No progress was being made in understanding the laws of spectroscopy or the laws which related the elements to one another. 246 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1960 Even the periodic table was an unfathomable mystery. Then came the discovery of the electron and the proton, two entities whose exist- ence had not before been recognized, and at least a promise of fur- ther understanding was achieved. It was a faith in this promise wliich caused many to believe that the end of discovery was near. However, a barrier to further progress was soon reached. Many had wished to invoke the possibility of another kind of particle — a neutral particle — but conservative science, having with reluctance accepted two new things, the electron and tlie proton, smaller than the atom, looked with great distaste upon any upstart who wanted m^ore atomic bricks to play with ; and it was not until, through experiment, a neu- tral particle, the neutron, was proved to exist that progress went ahead with leaps and bomids. We can readily understand the hesitancy of science to accept a neutral particle. One had almost come to regard as self-evident the principle that all atomic forces were electrical, and how could a neutral particle exert a force on anything or, indeed, how could it be influenced by anything? In the spirit of the times it had to be regarded as a completely dead entity. Perhaps the greatest clash with convention was the recognition of the fact that this entity, dead in the sense of all understandable happenings, could indeed play a part in its own way, a way so foreign to anything which was in the conventional picture. It was not so much by the fact that the neutron represented a new particle that science became disturbed, but rather that it represented a new set of relationships between things, a relationship which was not in the picture before. One had to admit what are called nuclear forces as distinct from electromagnetic forces — a new world of law and order. And what was more astonishing, one had to provide for interlocking relationships between this new domain of phenomena and the old domain which was so unlike it, and which, up to this time, had claimed authority over all nature. HARMONIZATION OF THE SCIENCE OF TODAY AND THAT OF TOMORRO\^- And so, in contemplating the harmonization of life with what we call the laws of inanimate matter, I expect to find a new set of laAvs, laws which do not deny anything we had before except in the denial of the claim of those laws to finality. And I expect to find these new laws mterweaving with the old knowledge in such a manner as to pro- duce a more comprehensive whole, a whole in which all sense of barriers has become dissolved in an all-embracing harmony. For many purposes it may be convenient to keep the new domain separate from the old, as the maker of spectacles keeps his science of geo- metrical optics separated from the quantum theory of light ; but there will be bridges connecting all parts of the new territoiy with the old domains in such fashion that he Avho travels across these bridges will SCIENCE, YESTERDAY, TODAY, TOMORROW — SWANN 247 have no sense of sudden change; and even as one who travels from tropical regions to the poles can accommodate himself to his satisfac- tion at each stage of the journey, so the philosopher, in traveling over this wider domain which I envisage, will find himself content wher- ever he may be. In developing the foregohig thoughts I have called attention to the rapid advance which took place in physics itself once one was willing to accept a new particle, the neutron, and furnish it wdth the where- withal to operate. Now I do not expect it to be necessary to find a new particle which will cement the old materialistic realm with the realm of life and all that goes with it, but I may expect to find the formal recognition of some kind of a new entity differing from those which we have encountered in physics. I do not necessarily expect that this entity will be something which can be described in terms of space and time, although I shall expect it to be accompanied by well-defined laws of operation which provide, not only for the activities peculiar to its own purposes, but for the possibility of cementing it logically with the knowledge of the past. We must not be too astonished at the invo- cation of an entity which does not call for expression in terms of space and time. After all, I may speak of such things as good and evil without accompanying them with coordinates a?, y, ^, t, to express where they are and when they were there. For the sophisticated physicist, I may recall that even the coordinates which represent Fourier amplitudes in the analysis of radiation in an ideal box are not coordinates of a material point in ordinary space, but, as coordinates in an abstract, multidimensional space, they perform a useful service m physics. In the last analysis much that is spoken of in the quantum theory of physics involves concepts having little to do with the old conventional notion associated with the expression of all relevant concepts in terms of some thing or things having positions at certain times. I shall not be surprised to find the new entity playing a part in the survival of pattern, so dominant in living things. I hesitate to limit its potentialities by giving it a name already appropriated and endowed with properties of vagueness too foggy to be permitted in a scientific discussion, and so I will not call it by the name "soul." If it is to be of service, it must not shrink away from its duties and take refuge as part of high-sounding sentences. Its functions and modes of operation must be well defined and it is only natural that in con- ventional science it will have to go through the process of skeptic criticism which has fallen to the lot of all its predecessors in the materialistic realm. I should expect to find it play a role in those phenomena which for long have lain in the borderland between what is accepted by all and what is accepted only by few, even though rep- resentatives of the few may be found in all periods of man's history. 579421—61 19 248 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1960 I refer to such things as extrasensory perception, the significance of the immortality of man, clairvoyance, and allied phenomena, and the significance of the fact that our universe exhibits what we may call a planned design, whether or not we are willing to admit the hazy notion of a planner, or say what we mean by that postulate. PREDETERMINATION AND A PLANNED UNIVERSE Perhaps the existence of the universe as an entity with strongly planned features provides the greatest argument against use of the un- deniable fact that if we are willing to work hard enough and involve ourselves in a sufficient complexity in mathematical expression, we can possibly regard any universe as operating on a principle of predeter- mination. In general, the principle invoked in such an arbitrary manner may rule out many notions which seem so important in the life of mankind by regarding everything as inevitable, even as in the parable of the slave and his master at the beginning of this lecture the theft by the slave was inevitable and the beating received for it was also inevitable. If the universe were a chaotic alfair without any of the properties which I have associated with the word "planned," there might be some sense in falling back on predetermination, but to invoke such a principle with things as they are is something like asserting that a cathedral of great beauty, which I had not seen be- fore, was formed by the accumulation of dust in an accidental manner through the ages. NEW DOMAINS FOR SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION In discussing such matters as I am now venturing near, I think it is essential to avoid all theological doctrine as a starting point. I would rather see a theological doctrine emerge spontaneously as part of the overall scheme of nature, than I would see the workings of nature forced into a frame provided by a preconceived theological doctrine as a starting point. In the past it has been a tradition of mankind to divide phenomena into two classes, those which may be investigated, and those concern- ing which we should not inquire. Between these two sets of phe- nomena there has been a barrier, and to cross that barrier was a sin against dogma or, in less solemn vein, a violation of sound principles of research only to be undertaken by those who are a little queer. As times progressed, this barrier has shifted, so that all astronomy now lies on the respectable side of it, in spite of the fact that 300 years ago much of it lay in the forbidden region, where also much of the embryo science of chemistry was to be found. Today, chemistry is thoroughly established in the unrestricted region. Even as many radicals become conservatives when they rise to power, so the science of the materialistic age, much of which lay on the SCIENCE, YESTERDAY, TODAY, TOMORROW — SWANN 249 dark side of the barrier in the past, on becoming promoted to the free side, started to fortify still further the barrier which it had passed, so that things which did not readily find a place in its philosophy were held in the forbidden region. Yet behind this fortification of division which materialistic science itself has strengthened, stand the shadows of bygone days: the philosophies, the practices, the beliefs, and re- ligions of ancient times, so vulnerable in many of the dogmas with which history had endowed them, that they oft fell an easy prey to the shafts of the newborn science of our era. The weaknesses in their armor bred a kind of conviction that all the wisdom of the ancient past was afflicted with the disease of superstition, a disease eating like a cancer into its whole system. Thus, many things which had been accepted for thousands of years were cast into the category of witchcraft. In the totality of these things there were, however, certain realms which, by virtue of the power which had supported them through the ages and because of their moral influence on man- kind, stood with some security against the attacks of modern phi- losophy. These were, for the most part, the standard religions of mankind. There was a sort of truce between the two camps, a truce in which the realm of religion ruled on Sundays, while the material- istic philosophy governed the rest of the week. Some things, well accepted in the past, but apparently at variance with materialism, found themselves without the powerful support accorded to the great religions and so they were left to the ridicule of the new age. Some of these things which had been part of the doctrine of the churches of the bygone era found themselves disdained by the faiths which had nurtured them, and the guardians of the faiths became anxious to avoid contamination with practices which might be attacked with some apparent success by the warriors of the new age. Thus, healing by the laying on of hands, belief in the existence of spirit entities in our midst, even such were cast out by the religions which had origi- nally fostered them, or if admitted at all, were retained as machina- tions of the devil, a being so beloved by the faiths that have created him that he has succeeded in holding his own in religion in the face of science itself. Naturally, at times he became very convenient as an agent to whom one could attribute all the shortcomings and incon- sistencies in the faiths and dogmas which sought to rule, as well as his own shortcomings. In contemplating his identity, one is reminded of the little girl who, on being asked by her younger sister the question : "Is there really a devil?," replied: "No, of course not, it's just like Santa Claus ; it's Daddy." And now what we call orthodox science has itself grown a type of philosophy so different from the old science bom of materialism that if it were forced to pause long enough to confess what, a hundred years 250 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 19 60 ago, it would have called its philosophic sins, it would find those sins no more free from materialistic criticism than much of the sins of philosophy which it has held behind the barrier. THE ULTIMATE HARMONIZATION OF SCIENCE Perhaps some day, not too far distant, orthodox science will find the urge to extend its domain of inquiiy into regions formerly for- bidden, and in the hope that all the phenomena of nature may find a place in one larger scheme of harmonization. I would hope that in this more comprehensive philosophy no man would have occasion to forsake any of the ideals which in the past he had fostered. "WHien this condition arrives, I envisage a sage charged with the duty of an- swering the questions of all who would make inquiry. The musician will say: "Wliere is my art in this scheme?" and the sage will reply: "See, it is here, complete in itself, but joined by this bridge, in perfect logical continuity with yon domain which is the domain of abstract mathematics." And the priest will ask : "Where are the essentials of my faith in which I have lived and which has been my anchor of security?" And the sage will answer: "Cast your vision upon yon territory. There j^ou will find it. It is joined by a bridge of great beauty to the domain of your arch-enemy, the domain which was formerly that of materialistic science." And in this picture those things for which the mind and soul long shall no longer appear veiled in nebulous shrouds of uncertainty, but shall stand out as jewels adorning the greater universe in all its rich- ness and splendor. And if some doubtful inquisitor should ask of the sage : "Where, in all this, shall I find the devil who has meant so much to me in my life?" he will receive the reply: "The devil — oh, the devil ! He is in hell. You will find hell behind the old barrier, and the devil is the only occupant." The Origin and Nature of the Moon' By Harold C. Urey School of Science and Engineering, University of California, La Jolla, Calif. [With 5 plates] THE ORIGIN OF THE CRATERS In 1893 G. K. Gilbert, who appears to be the only student of the moon's surface m the course of the last century who had any sound knowledge of physical geology, published a remarkable paper on "The Moon's Face" [1].^ He reviewed many features of the lunar craters and concluded tliat they were due to great collisions of meteoritelike objects with the moon's surface. In recent times, R. B. Baldwin in his book "The Face of the Moon" [2] reviewed the evidence concerning the origin of the craters, and since then it has not been necessary to reconsider the problem. Baldwin gives many references to the older literature and considers in detail the alternative hypotheses of a volcanic or a collisional origin. The volcanic theory of crater origin was advanced before modern scientists realized that meteorites fell on the earth, and it required nearly a century of dis- cussion before astronomers agreed that most craters resulted from collisions. Gilbert concluded that lunar structures are not similar to those of the earth; that the pattern of overlap is that to be expected for chance collisions; and that the moon has no structures similar to terrestrial volcanoes, if account is taken of the absence of erosion there. He recognized, however, that there are small craters which camiot be due to collisions and hence must be of some volcanic type, even though their shape is not that of terrestrial volcanoes. Many questions relating to the moon are decisively answered by con- sideration of its overall shape and the nature of one of its principal features, the great Imbrian collision. There are many other subsidi- ary lines of evidence, but we can best begin our account by discussing these two important aspects. 1 Reprinted by permission from Endeavour, vol. 19, No. 74, April 1960. Acknowledg- ment Is made to the editor of Sky and Telescope for permitting the use of material pub- lished by Professor Urey In that journal in 1956. 2 Numbers in brackets refer to list of references at end of article. 251 252 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1960 THE SHAPE OF THE MOON Measurements of the elevations of the lunar surface have been made, but the methods of observation are difficult and not very precise : reli- able evidence that it has an irregular shape comes from its dynamical motions. Textbooks on celestial mechanics give a formula for com- puting the difference in the moment of inertia about the polar axis {C) and that about the axis pointing toward the earth (A). From observed data {O — A)/C=^.000 629, whereas the theoretical value deduced from consideration of the moon's shape imder its own gravi- tational field, the earth's gravitational field, and the centrifugal forces of rotation, is only 0.000 037 5. The ratio of these numbers is 16.7 : 1. If the moon has a uniform density, the observations require that the radius toward and away from the earth should be larger than that to- ward the poles by about 1 km., whereas theory requires a difference of only about 60 m. This irregular shape must result in a difference in stress at the center of about 20 atm., and this requires considerable strength of the material at the moon's deep interior if the density is uniform throughout. If the density of the moon is not uniform, but varies according to latitude and longitude by a small amount, the irregular shape can be explained by a theory recently advanced [2a]. This requires the density near the poles to be larger than that about the axis pointing toward the earth. In this case, the strength of the deep interior need not be very great, and the center could be at a high temperature. But this variation of density with latitude and longitude could hardly have been preserved if the moon had e\'er been generally molten. But could the moon have been molten even if it has a uniform density? So large an object can cool only very slowly, even in a time as long as the moon has existed, which we believe is about 4.5 eons (an eon being defined as 10^, or 1 billion, years). This age is as- sumed to be the same as that of the meteorites. Calculations of the loss of heat sliow that the center of the moon would lose little heat even in this length of time. If the moon were ever molten, its center would still be very close to its melting point and hence would not have the required strength to support the irregular shape [3]. The presence of the radioactive elements potassium, uranium, and thorium would increase the internal temperature, the effect depending on the amounts of these elements and their distribution. We know nothing about the distribution of these elements in the moon and have difficulty in estimating their distribution in the earth. However, if the heat being lost from the earth is assumed to be entirely due to radioactivity, we find that the total amounts of these elements in the earth may be very similar to that of the meteorites and that possibly less than one-half of them are in the crust. In the moon, a similar ORIGIN AND NATURE OF THE MOON — UREY 253 distribution would keep the temperature in the deep interior above the melting point if it was originally molten. In fact, the entire in- terior out to about 0.8 of its radius would be at the melting point if the initial temperature had been that at which silicates melt. Such a conclusion is, however, inconsistent with the shape of the moon, and it must therefore have been formed at a low temperature. We may ask whether the mterior of the moon would be molten at the present time, owing to radioactive heating, even if it had been formed at a low temperature. There are uncertainties in the answer to this question. We do not know the concentrations of the radio- active elements in the moon. Possibly the concentrations in meteorites give the best estimate, though it is not a certain one. Calculations in- dicate that any metallic iron-nickel in the moon's deep interior would be molten, but we have in fact no evidence for the existence of metal- lic iron within the moon. The material of the moon is not a pure substance, and hence would not melt at one temperature : calculations indicate that partial melting of the silicates might occur. All these considerations can be reconciled only with the hypothesis that there is a variation in density with latitude and longitude. This explana- tion is consistent with a partially molten interior today, but incon- sistent with a generally molten condition in the distant past. Gilbert said, "During the whole period of growth the body of the moon was cold." This statement was made before the discovery of radioactivity. It has required much argument to come to the same conclusion again, and the problem is a critical one [3]. In 1862 Kelvin [4] wrote a paper dealing with the solidification of the earth from a completely molten state. At that time no other source of heat for volcanic processes was known other than residual primitive heat, and he therefore assumed a high-temperature origin for the earth. This belief has found its way into the textbooks, and it is now generally assumed that all objects in the solar system were once at very high temperatures. The discovery of radioactivity at the turn of the century made Kelvin's assumption unnecessary, but no reconsideration of the whole problem was made at that time. Pos- sibly planets and satellites were fonned at high temperatures, but we may now well ask what evidence exists for or against the hypothesis. THE IMBRIAN COLLISION A very great collision occurred in Mare Imbrium at some time in the past : the evidence for this was discovered and described by Gil- bert. The collision directly modified a large fraction of the visible hemisphere of the moon. The region of Mare Imbrium is shown in plate 1, which is a composite picture of the moon : it is the large gray oval area at the lower right of the picture. It is also shown in plate 2, 254 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 19 60 which was made by projecting pictures onto a white sphere and then photographing the mare from a point directly above it. The lines in- dicate the positions of the Bay of the Rainbow or Sinus Iridum, a cir- cular area before it, and the entire mare. Radiating from the circular area are many ridges, particularly toward the southwest: there are also many grooves in tlie surface, as can be seen on good photographs. Gilbert noted all these features, except for what seems to be an obvious relationship of Sinus Iridum to the rest of the pattern. The most reasonable explanation of all these details is that they are related and were produced by one event. The whole pattern is unsymmetrical, and hence one concludes that the colliding object arrived from the northeast at a substantial angle from the vertical, plowed a deep hole in the moon, and spread out some of its own substance and some of the Imiar substance in a wide fan-shaped area and to great distances. The object probably came in through what is now Sinus Iridum and either produced this bay or destroyed one wall of a walled plain. Alterna- tively, a second collision of substantial size occurred in precisely the same region after the formation of Mare Imbrium. Two large colli- sions at the same spot seem most improbable, and hence it is most likely that one great collision produced the entire pattern. A few of the ridges and grooves extend through the Jura Mountains to the northeast of Sinus Iridum. The principal pattern spreads out in a semicircular fan from the edge of the Carpathian Mountains on the east, to Plato to the west of Sinus Iridum. Momitainous ridges which point toward the circular collision area are found in and be- yond the center of the moon's disk. High-density objects plowed through the walls of Ptolemaeus and Alphonsus and produced great grooves in the surface: these objects can reasonably be assumed to liave been metallic iron-nickel. In Oceanus Procellarum there are many short ridges orientated in the general direction of the collision area. It is not clear whether some of the individual ridges and grooves belong to the system or not, but the overall pattern is entirely convincing. The circumsurface velocity of the moon is 1.7 km. per second, and since tlie objects fell at a point some 1,000 to 1,500 km. from the point of collision, their velocity must have been of about this value. The broad pattern indicates that the object Avas moving at a velocity loAver than that of sound in tlie material of which it is composed — in this case, some 5 to 7 km. per second. An object moving with relatively high velocity — say some 30 km. i)er second — would bury itself before the rear side received a signal that contact was m.ade and would ex- plode to give a symmetrical pattern. But if we assume a velocity less than that of sound — say some 2.4 km. per second, which is the escape velocity of the moon — the unsymmetrical pattern can be under- ORIGIN AND NATURE OF THE MOON — UREY 255 stood. Vertical deceleration of the top of the object would occur, and this part could move off horizontally at some 1.7 Ian. per second : probably some would spray out sideways to produce a fanlike dis- tribution. The object may have been a satellite of the earth-moon system or one moving in an orbit similar to that of the earth. AVliatever its nature, the object most probably produced Sinus Iridum, and hence passed between the two promontories of Laplace and Heraclides : the distance between these is about 230 km., and this is therefore the maximum diameter of the planetesimal. Gilbert sug- gested 100 miles for its diameter : other suggestions have been made, but on less direct grounds. Using 200 km. as a likely value, calcula- tions of the object's kinetic energy can be made. Assuming a density of 3.5 g./cm.^ and 2.38 km. per second (the velocity of escape from the moon) for the velocity, the kinetic energy is 4.15 XlO^^ ergs. This is equivalent to 4.6 X 10^^ atomic bombs, equivalent to one for each 1,100 square meters of the earth's surface. The largest earthquakes are estimated to expend about 10^* ergs, and thus the Imbrian collision dissipated an energy more than 10^ times as gi'eat. A collision of this magnitude is completely beyond any observa- tions which we have made, and deductions made from any scaling up of terrestrial o])servations would be most doubtful. It is better to take this collision as an observed fact and to try to learn something about large collisions from it. The object plowed in through Sinus Iridum ; flattened out in the collision area ; and raised a great bulging wave in the moon's surface in all directions, but particularly in the forward direction, that is, toward the center of the moon's visible disk. The affected area was badly broken up, perhaps even to the consistency of fine sand, and after the collision, part of t\\Q material subsided again, producing the shelf area between the inner and outer rings shown m plate 2. It is possible that part of the lunar surface was lifted and then dropped as big blocks, forming the Straight Range, Piton, Pico, Spitz- bergen, and the other mountainous mass indicated by the arrows in plate 2. The Alps, Caucasus, Apennines, and Carpathian Mountains may also be formed of this kind of material; the first two, in particu- lar, look like fragments of this kind. It is, of course, possible that those mountains were part of the planetesimal. The Haemus Moim- tains must consist of fragments of the colliding body. The long grooves must have been produced by high-velocity and high-density objects plowing through the surface. Because of their high density, these materials must have been metallic iron-nickel, and they must have been part of the colliding object in spite of their great distance from the collision area. Such iron-nickel objects could hardly have formed a core of the colliding planetesimal : probably they were dis- 256 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 19 60 tributed as isolated objects, mixed with silicates, throughout the mass. They are reminiscent of the iron meteorites, and probably the plan- etesimal was similar to objects which produced the iron meteorites- Other circular maria are Crisium, Nectaris, Hmnorum, and Sereni- tatis. A prominent scarp, the Altai Mountains, to the south and east of Mare Nectaris, is similar to the scarp around Mare Imbrium. The area between the mountains and the smooth mare is covered with great craters : it seems to be analogous to the shelf area in Imbrium. The Eheita and Borda Valleys and other grooves radiate from this mare, and may have been produced by high-velocity missiles. Baldwin believes there are radiating grooves around other maria. Partially covered craters are present in Mare Serenitatis. Probably all these circular maria were produced by great colliding objects which ap- proached at differing angles to the surface. The highly unsymmetrical character of Mare Imbrium shows that in this case the planetesimal approached at a low angle. The other collision maria were probably produced by objects falling more nearly vertically and hence did not produce such a wide-angle fan of ridges and grooves. THE TIME OF OCCURRENCE OF THESE EVENTS Some of the craters on the moon must have been produced by meteorites, though we have little evidence for really large meteorites hitting the earth. Some of the large lunar craters were formed before the Imbrian collision and others afterward. Ptolemaeus (pi. 4) has walls that have been scarred by missiles from the Imbrian collision and are very low, as though they had been partly shaken down by this energetic event. Mountainous masses have fallen on other craters, as for example in Julius Caesar. Other craters, such as Aristillus and Autolycus lying within Mare Imbrium and Eratosthenes on the south- ern edge of this mare, are more recent. Whether Plato and Archime- des could have survived this great collision is doubtful. Similar rela- tionships are evident in other maria. Theophilus and other craters in the neighborhood are more recent than Mare Nectaris. All these collisions were part of a single series of events; some craters were formed, then a mare, then still more craters, and so on. These craters and maria cover the entire visible surface of the moon so densely that the whole of it has been broken up. One would expect that during the time of this bombardment the earth would have been bombarded even more intensely than the moon, because of the greater energy of the collisions with its surface and because its gravitational field gives the earth a larger collision cross section. Such a bombardment would have destroyed all the terrestrial sedimentary rocks and should have left great scars on the continental shields. The oldest terrestrial rocks have been reliably dated at about 3 eons, while the meteorites are ORIGIN AND NATURE OF THE MOON — UREY 257 about 4.5 eons old or slightly older. The intense bombardment which occurred on the moon must have happened more than 3 eons ago, and may well be a record of the final stage of the formation of the moon, the earth, and indeed of the solar system. COMPOSITION OF THE MARIA It has been commonly supposed that the maria consist of solidified lava. This is a natural assumption, since the maria are level, as we would expect fluids to be in the moon's gravitational field. It has been assumed that the lava flowed from the moon's interior, but a well- known line of reasoning shows that this is doubtful. Terrestrial lavas have temperatures not over 1,200° C, which is a reasonable estimate of the melting points of basaltic liquid in equilibrium with the silicates beneath the earth's surface. This liquid cannot be much above its melting point, because if it was, it would melt the containing walls and hence cool until equilibrium was again reached. If such a liquid flows onto a cold surface the lava begins to freeze, and it is difficult to understand how it could flow very far without producing fairly high terminal walls. It should be noted that proponents of the ideas that the maria are of laval origin have postulated that the liquid flowed very great distances. The Oregon and Deccan plateau lava flows each cover about 500,000 km.^, which is smaller than Mare Im- brium. If the lunar features are indeed lava flows, they are compa- rable to, or even larger than, those on earth. It seems probable that some terminal walls would be preserved if the great smooth areas were m fact of this type [5]. Also, had the moon's surface been underlain by these vast quantities of high-temperature lavas, the great momi- tains would surely have gradually sunk into the moon's surface. On the basis of such arguments Gilbert concluded that the moon was cold when its maria were formed, and we can conclude that it has been cold in its outer parts ever since. There is no evidence that the mountains have settled into the moon's surface, and we can deduce from this that the lavas (if they are lavas) did not come from the moon's interior. Gilbert believed that the melting was caused by the collision energy of the objects arriving on the moon. The collision energy per gram of an object arriving with the escape velocity of the moon (2.38 km. per second) is 2,800 joules, and about 2,000 joules per gram are re- quired to heat silicates to the melting point and then to melt them. Some energy would be dissipated as vibration, but some melting might occur. If the velocities were very high, volatilization would occur and something like a great explosion would take place. This is incon- sistent with the unsymmetrical pattern of ridges as mentioned before, but nevertheless a velocity somewhat higher than the escape velocity is possible. 258 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1960 T. Gold [6] has suggested that the maria consist of deep layers of dust produced by the eroding effects of sunlight and particle radia- tion from the sun. He believes that such particles would move over the surface because of cliarges on them. A hopping motion is assumed to have moved them over great distances in the past and to move them in the same way at the present time. He points out that the many craters, large and small, in the southern regions have smooth, gray material within and between them, and that neither lava from the interior nor molten material resulting from collisions appears to be a reasonable explanation. Such reasoning prompts two questions. Do we think that liquid from the interior seeped up in all these places? If there were ever large quantities of liquid beneath the lunar surface, would not the more dense solid phase sink steadily down into the liquid until it was completely submerged? However, the hypothesis that erosion was the main origin of the dust is unreasonable, for if this were so, all parts of the moon surface should have the same appearance, or this should at least be true of all equatorial regions. It is not true of the hemisphere that faces the earth and, as we have lately learned, emphatically not true of the back hemisphere. These facts make Gold's general hypothesis untenable, although some erosion of this type may be present and may modify the effects of other more dominant processes. If spread over the moon's surface, the Imbrian planetesimal, sup- posedly some 200 km. in diameter, would make a layer 110 m. deep, and if it contained 1 percent of water by weight this would be enough to cover the moon to a depth of 3.9 m. This is a larger percentage of water than is contained in the meteorites or on and within the earth. Other planetesimals wliich produced the other circular maria could have supplied water also. Such planetesimals would be moderately explosive if they contained water or other volatile substances. These possibilities suggest that in addition to the materials which have already been discussed above as coming from these planetesimals, there may have been a vast dust cloud which spread finely divided materials over the moon's surface. This material, of course, would fall on the mountain slopes, but it does not appear to be there now. Did temporary rains wash it off? Or did the violent moonquakes cause it to slide into the valleys, as "fluidized" mixtures of gases and solids used in industrial chemical processes do? Gilbert remarks that many lunar features look as though they had been covered by a pasty material, and thought it was partially solidified lava. Perhaps he was right, and it is neither dust nor rubble. To resolve the problem we should look for objective evidence. Any- one looking at the moon through even a small telescope is immedi- ately imprcvssed with the smooth character of the maria, but I am ORIGIN AND NATURE OF THE MOON — UREY 259 convinced that merely looking in this way will never provide very detailed evidence. If only we could see the crystalline structure of the lunar rocks! Lava, especially basaltic lava, is a dense liquid of con- siderable fluidity which might push over and distort crater walls in its path. I can see no evidence for this having happened in Mare Nu- bium or Oceanus Procellarum. I have for the most part studied only pictures, but a little observing convinces me that gross features of this kind are not likely to be missed when good photographs are available. But lava must flow downhill, whereas dust can fall anywhere. The coloring in some photographs indicates a smooth hill over the eastern wall of Prinz and over the craters Hippalus and Weiss : other exam- ples are less clear. On the other hand, the crater Wargentin is full to the brim with what appears to have been a liquid. Gilbert noted that Julius Caesar is filled as high as a breach in the southern wall and that Posidonius is filled to the height of a similar breach, which suggests that the contents of both were once fluid. Mare Tranquillitatis has a very irregular shape and is very black. One would expect that the settling of dust would give the moon a uni- form color or that color variations would be gradual. The boundary between the black of Mare Tranquillitatis and the gray of Mare Sere- nitatis in the western part of the latter is very sharp, and there appears to be no difference in level. In fact. Mare Tranquillitatis does look like a lava flow. Some of its craters — for example, IMaclear — seem to be distorted. The fragments of craters in the western part of the mare look as though they may have been pushed about. Possibly both lava and dust were produced by the collisions, some- times one and sometimes the other. Possibly a planetesimal fell ver- tically and produced Mare Serenitatis and a pool of very dark lava which flowed into Mare Tranquillitatis. It had only a small content of volatile substances, and its material was distributed to only a lim- ited extent over the moon. Then the Imbrian planetesimal, containing an appreciable concentration of volatile substances, fell and distrib- uted gray dust widely. Possibly it was some other series of events. Gold's dust hypothesis has at least stimulated some serious thinking about the long-accepted lava hypothesis. DURATION OF THE BOMBARDMENT It is notable that there are no large craters of later date than the maria in the collision maria : in the case of Mare Imbrium this applies only to the collision area within the broken circle of plate 2. The- ophilus and Piccolomini, near the shore of Mare Nectaris, and another on the Altai Mountains at the south are certainly postmare, as are other craters near the shores of other maria. These circular collision maria must have been fluid, that is, either true liquid or dust "fluid- 260 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1960 ized" by gas at the time the bombardment ended. A similar argu- ment holds for the absence of moimtainous masses in Mare Serenitatis. Had this mare been formed after Mare Imbrium, one would expect to find the scars of this collision scattered over the radiating ridges of the Haemus Mountains, to the south of the mare, which were obvi- ously produced by the Imbrian collision. Further, the mountains in the region between the two maria are very well preserved, and have a radiating pattern showing that they are part of the Imbrian system (pi. 3). For these reasons I conclude that Mare Serenitatis is older than Mare Imbrium. But in this case the absence of a mountainous mass, similar to the Haemus Mountains, on Mare Serenitatis, shows that this mare was fluid at the time of the Imbrian collision. Lava would very quickly solidify to form a very rigid mass. Dust or sandy material can become rigid also, though it might not for some time have sufficient strength to support a massive mountain. The small craters in the maria are due to collisions that took place during the 4.5 eons that have elapsed since the occurrence of the very great processes which produced the maria. These arguments indicate that the major surface features of the moon were fashioned in a very short time. Calculations based on the rate of cooling of solidified rocky materials show that only some tens of thousands of years are required for such pools of lava to cool : if some low-density froth or pumice floated on the surface the time could be considerably longer. (In this connection it must be remembered that the solidification of most liquids does not follow the same course as that of water, whose solid phase floats on the liquid : if a magic wand were to make water behave like all other common substances, the ice of the Arctic Ocean would sink and the ocean would freeze solid from bottom to top.) The consolidation of dust would require still longer. We have little experience on which to base a guess, but pos- sibly much less than a million years would suffice — a surprisingly short time. It is possible that the objects which collided with the moon to produce its gross features were satellites of the earth-moon system. During some thousands of years, such objects would collide with the earth or moon, but objects traveling in orbits about the sun, when in the neighborhood of the earth would collide with the latter within some tens of millions of years, according to calculations of E. J. Opik [7]. Objects moving in orbits about the earth should arrive at its surface with about the escape velocity of the moon. The stone meteorites are immensely complicated structures, con- sisting of agglomerated sandy materials whose crystalline minerals were certainly fonned in a body different from those in which they are now found. Some collisional process such as occurred on the moon may have produced the highly fragmented crystals that we find ORIGIN AND NATURE OF THE MOON — UREY 261 in these meteorites. Using three radioactive dating methods — based respectively on the rate of change of uranium to lead, of rubidium 87 to strontium 87, and of potassium 40 to argon 40 — we find that the time that has elapsed since they were last heated to liigh temperatures is about 4.5 eons. It is probable that the moon, the earth, and in fact the entire solar system were formed at that time. Any theory of these events must explain the curious physical structures and chemical composition of these meteorites. It is most curious that the cosmic-ray ages of stone meteorites are only some tens of millions of years, and no certain explanation of this observation is available. However, objects moving m the neighbor- hood of the earth's orbit would be expected to exist in free space for about this length of time before they collide with the earth. Thus for most of geologic time they must have been covered with a layer of screening material, about a meter in thickness, which prevented the cosmic rays from producing special varieties of atoms, in this case the inert gases helium 3, neon 21, and argon 38. They were broken out of this environment as objects so small that cosmic rays could penetrate them. This requirement demands that their diameters should be in the range 30 to 100 cm. Thereafter they traveled in interplanetary space for some tens of millions of years. Could they have been blasted off the moon by the heads of comets? This is a possibility, and if it were so we would know of what some parts of the lunar surface are composed. However, only the transport of some pieces of the moon's surface to the earth can decide whether this sup- position is correct. We may conclude that the moon's surface was fashioned mostly by great collisions with its surface some 4.5 eons ago during a relatively shoi-t period of time — probably less than a million years. Since then it has been bombarded by lesser objects which have produced mostly smaller craters. THE OTHER HEMISPHERE OF THE MOON The great space vehicles of the Soviet Union have given us a glimpse of the previously unknown hemisphere of the moon: this feat must be rated as the greatest exploration since the discovery of America by Christopher Columbus. This first observation (pi. 5) gives us only a vague idea of what the "other side" is like and what we may learn from it. It has fewer maria than the visible hemi- sphere; this is unexpected but not surprising, because the Imbrian collision has supplied so many gray smooth areas to this side, that is to say its own area and probably much of Oceanus Procellarmn, Mare Nubium, and other neighboring areas. If by chance the plan- etesimal had fallen on the other side of the moon the general appear- 262 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1960 ance of the two hemispheres would have been largely reversed. Cer- tainly removing Maria Imbrimn and Serenitatis would produce this general effect. The number of craters on this side is so great that it would not be possible by any stretch of the imagmation to suppose that the great "land" areas of the other side would not be covered by similar craters. Though we might suppose that an equivalent of Mare Imbrium would be fomid on the far hemisphere, it would not be surprising if this did not occur. On the basis of pictures so far made available to the West by the scientists of the Soviet Union we are not able to draw any very im- portant conclusions about the structure and history of the moon. The maria on the limb of the moon extend to the other side, and Mare Moskva (Moscow Sea) occupies the approxmiate middle of the fur- ther hemisphere. Again there is an indication that it has a neighbor- ing smooth area which might be due to a flow of lava from the area of a collision or to the fall of dust and rubble produced by such a collision. It is quite evident that general erosional effects from sun- light and particle radiation from the sun have not been veiy eff'ective in shaping the moon's features. OTHER FEATURES OF THE LUNAR SURFACE Over the years, many features of the lunar surface have been re- corded in considerable detail by many observers, and some new de- tails have been added by recent observations. The rays fiom some of the craters cross all other features, both the mountainous and de- pressed areas. They are due undoubtedly to particles thrown out over the surface as a result of the explosive collisions wliich produced the craters. In the liigh vacuum existing on the moon's surface, each dust particle would travel in an elliptical path, and if the par- ticles from a crater moved in similar but not identical paths, tliey would fall in a pattern which might or might not be that of the ob- served rays. If such particles were moving with a velocity of 1.7 km. per second or greater, and if the initial direction were parallel to tlie Imiar surface, they could travel completely round the moon and ar- rive back at their starting point in somewhat more than 108 minutes. The moon m this time would have rotated to the west, and the parti- cles would, therefore, miss the original crater and fall on its eastern run, if the orbit were in a north-south direction. Two rays of Tycho do just this. It has recently been suggested that, if particles were thrown vertically to a great height and fell back to the surface in about the same length of time, the same displacement would be ob- served. The rays of Copernicus are veiy irregular, and various ex- planations have been given of this. Possibly a slight atmosphere was present at the time when they were formed. Many well-formed Smitlisonian Report, I%0 Urey Plate 1 25 24 23 22 The moon. 'The niounlains formed b_\ the spia}- ol maierial fn can be seen in this picuire. (Lick Obserwatcn y phi im the Imlirian culhsion )to,i:raiiii.) 1. Tycho 16. Sinus Iridum 2. Weiss 17. Jura Mountains 3. .Mare Nnbium 18. l^aplace 4. Ilij^pahis 19. Straight Range S. .Mare Ilnmorum 20. Spilzbergeii (k Plolemaeus 21. Pico 7. Flamstced 22. Plato X. Occanus Procellarum 23. Apcti nines 9. Copernicus 24. Pi ton 10. .'\ristarchus 2.5. .'\ristillus 11. Prinz 26. Alps 12. Carpathian Mountains 27. Caucasus .Mountain: 13. .■\rchimedcs 28. Autolycus 14. -Mare Imbrium 29. Mare Serenitatis 15. Ileraclides 30. Haemus .Mountains 31. JuhLis Caesar 32. .Maclear 33. Mare Tranquilhtalis 34. Palus Somnii 35. Proclus 36. Marc Crisium 37. Capella 38. Thcopliilus 39. Mare Nectaris 40. .Mtai Mountains 41. Piccolomini 42. P>orda Valle\- 43. Rheita Valley 44. .\lphonsus 45. .'\rzachel Smithsonian Report, 1960— Urey Smithsonian Report. 1^1(10 -Urcy l4^ Li?" Smithsonian Report, 1960 — Urey PioleiiKicus, showing the many small craters. The surface is not smooth, and the smooth gray material covers some craters which antedated the formation of the material which covers the floor. The walls have been scarred by projectiles which arrived from the north-northeast and which were part of the debris from the Imbrian collision. Smithsonian Report, I960 — Urey Plate 5 'I'he olhcr side of the moon as seen from Lunik-3. Tlie dorted line shows the edge of the visible part of the moon. All features to the right of that dotted line are invisible from the earth. Features marked on the visible section are (I) Humboldt Sea, (II) Sea of Crisis, (III) Regional Sea, (IV) Sea of Waves, (V) Smith Sea, (VI) Sea of Fertility, (VII) South Sea. Newly seen features: (1) Moscow Sea, about 300 km. across, (2) Bay of Astronauts, (3) the hitherto unknown section of the South Sea, (4) Tsiolkovsk\- crater with its central peak, (5) Lomonosov" Crater with its central peak, (6) Joliot-Curie Crater, (7) Soviet Mountain range, (8) Sea of Dreams. (Photograph courtesy Fix Inc., New York.) ORIGIN AND NATURE OF THE MOON — UREY 263 craters have no rays: possibly they are older and the rays have be- come obliterated by the fall of niicrometeorites, or perhaps, again, the moon had a temporary atmosphere when they were formed. Pro- clus has rays extending in all directions except towaixl the southeast : Fielder has reported tlie presence of a ridge tliere which may have intercepted the particles. If this is the correct interpretation, we can conclude that the collision sprayed out this material in a horizontal direction. Chemical effects sucli as the escape of gases from below the surface may also have been important in producing this unsym- metrical ray pattern. N. Kozyrev [8] has reported that, during November 1958, gases escaped from the region of the central peak of Alphonsus, and he pub- lished a spectrum of these gases. He states that the original spectrum shows the presence of the Co bands which are prominent features of comet spectra. No change in the appearance of the central peak has been noted, and thus this could not have been a typical volcanic erup- tion such as is observed on the earth; possibly it was an eruption of water from the interior. Many small black areas have been observed in various parts of the moon, and in fact several examples appear in Alphonsus. Often they have small craters in their centers and look as though gaseous eruptions of some kind had occurred. If C2 — or rather, compounds which the solar light dissociates to give C2 — escapes from the moon, some blackening of the surface by graphite should occur. A very curious and puzzling feature of the surfaces of the m.aria are the great sinuous wrinkles some 100 meters high, some kilometers wide, and hundreds of kilometers long. G. P. Kuiper [9] has recently re- ported that there are often cracks along their tops, and in some cases white material can be seen in these cracks. Does the white material consist of encrustations of salt, possibly deposited by escaping Avater? J. W. Salisbury [10] has made an interesting suggestion in regard to some rounded hills that have been observed for many years. He sug- gests that water has caused hydration of olivine present in these re- gions, causing it to swell and elevate the surface. Possibly the wrin- kles in the maria overlay cracks below, through which water rises from the interior. The wrinkles look much like sand dunes or slides of some Idnd. Their origin is uncertain, but probably tliey are super- ficial in origin, and the unraveling of the puzzle will contribute little toward a fundamental understanding of the moon. Long cracks occur in various regions of the moon, and in some places craters are distributed along them. The curious distribution of the craters along these cracks shoAvs that they are certainly not due to col- lisions. They are due to the escape of gases from the interior, and have long been interpreted in this way. An outstanding example lies just 579421—61 20 264 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1960 west of Copernicus, but others exist in the land areas and in the regions near the center of the moon's disk. These cracks are probably due to some general phenomenon, such as a gradual expansion of the moon due to increasing temperature; the escape of gases may well be due to this same circumstance. The big valleys have not yet been discussed. The Alpine Valley is the most prominent of these and is about 130 km. long. It points in the direction of the great collision in Mare Imbrium and has been ascribed to the effects of an iron-nickel object plowing through the surface. It has also been suggested that it is due to a crack in the lunar surface. It is certainly much straighter than the other features, which all agree are cracks. The Kheita and Borda Valleys in the southwest regions are even longer. All are remarkably straight; if they are in fact cracks plowed out by iron-nickel objects it is evident that these were very large and were moving with high velocity. SOME PROBLEMS OF LUNAR EXPLORATION On all grounds, the most immediate task of lunar exploration should be to determine the composition and physical character of the maria. Quite simple observations on a few samples of material by methods that permit the study of the crystalline structure would unequivocally answer questions raised in this paper. Such observations cannot be made from a distance of 384,000 km. : obtaining better photographs that will resolve smaller craters will give but little additional infor- mation. The color of the rocks is determined by their composition and by the action of ultraviolet and particle radiation in a near-perfect vacuum during the last 4.5 eons. Radioactivity could be measured from a space vehicle flying some hundreds of kilometers above the surface. If the radioactivity is similar to that of the earth, much differentiation of the limar surface by melting processes must have occurred. If the concentration of radioactive elements is low, we must conclude that the composition is similar to that of meteorites and that little differentiation has oc- curred. The former result would mean that the moon has had a very high-temperature history, and the latter that it has had a low-tem- perature history. The moon's density is less than that of the earth, even when allow- ance is made for the compression in the latter due to its great interior pressures. This means that the moon contains less iron than the earth or more low-density substances, most probably water. If the reason is more water, this would be expected to be concentrated in the surface rocks as water of crystallization, and the percentages required are large — probably 10 percent or more. This could be detected easily if simple chemical analyses could be made. If the reason for the low ORIGIN AND NATURE OF THE MOON — TJRET 265 density is lack of iron, this would indicate that the moon has a com- position similar to that of the sun, and that the earth and the other planets acquired increased amounts of iron during their formation. This bears on two important problems, namely, the origin of the elements and the origin of the solar system. The rigidity could be determined by seismographs and gravimeters placed on the surface, and these could be flown to and landed on the moon. Such measurements will show whether the moon is now molten in the deep interior and give much information about its internal temperature. The determination of the age of the moon's surface, by radioactive dating methods, will tell us definitely the time at which the events described in this paper occurred. The surface materials — particu- larly at the poles, which have remained cool during geologic time — will give us a record of cosmic-ray intensities during the time that the solar system has existed. For such studies it is necessary to extract the inert gases from the surface materials. Knowing how rapidly they are produced by cosmic rays, we can calculate the time of expo- sure if the intensity of the rays has been constant. If the age so calculated agrees with the radioactive ages, we should then know that the cosmic rays have been constant in intensity, at least on the aver- age. Disagreement would require another explanation. The moon has been an object for astronomical study for centuries. We are now entering a period when physical and chemical studies will supplement the astronomical ones. Certainly the petrologists will have a field day if at some time samples of the moon can be secured. However, if the story of the moon as presented here is correct, the usual processes of geology — the mountain uplift, volcanology, erosion, sedimentation, and formation of the fossil record — will have little application to selenology. REFERENCES 1. Gilbert, G. K. Bull. Philos. Soc. Washington, vol. 12, p. 24, 1893. 2. Baldwin, R. B. The face of the moon. University of Chicago Press, 1949. 2a. Urey, H. C. ; Elsasser, W. M. ; and Rochester, M. G. Astrophys. Journ., vol. 129, p. 842, 1959. 3. Urey, H. C. Boundary conditions for the origin of the solar system. In Progress in physics and chemistry of the earth, vol. 2. Pergamon Press, London, 1957. 4. Kelvin, Lord. Trans. Roy. Soc. Edinburgh, vol. 23, p. 157, 1862. 5. DiETZ, R. S. Journ. Geol., vol. M, p. 359, 1946. ' 6. Gold, T. Monthly Not. Roy. Astron. Soc, vol. 115, p. 585, 1955. 7. Opik, E. J. Contr. Armagh Observ., No. 6, p. 186, 1951. 8. Kozyrev, N. Sky and Telescope, vol. 18, p. 184, 1959. 9. KuiPER, G. P. The exploration of the moon. In Vistas in astronautics, voL 2, p. 286. Pergamon Press, London, 1959. 10. Salisbury, J. W. (In press.) Exploring tlie Solar System by Radar^ By Paul E. Green, Jr., and Gordon H. Pettengill Lincoln Laboratory^ Massachusetts Institute of Technology [With 3 plates] Ask the average person about exploitation of the sohxr system, and he will probably give you an image of giant rockets firing complicated instruments into space. Or perhaps he will remind you of the richly detailed picture built up over tlie centuries from optical studies and added to during the last few years by infrared and radio observations. It may not occur to him, however, that radar teclmiques are begin- ning to play an important role, too. Radar is, in a sense, simply two-way radio. Some sort of signal is emitted by a directive antenna on the earth, travels to the object being studied, is reflected in many directions, and a tiny remnant of it eventually arrives back at the earth to be collected by the same antemia. Since we know exactly what the transmitted signal is, we can compare the returned echo with what was transmitted, so as to test something about the target body, perhaps something that would be difficult to isolate and study in any other way. One of the simplest examples of such a test is the measurement of distance. If the experimenter knows the speed at which energy travels, he can determine the target's distance just by measuring the elapsed time between transmission and reception — a much more direct and usually more accurate method than the optical use of trigono- metric parallax. (Time measurements to one part in a billion are common with today's electronic equipment.) But, as we hope to show here, many more things than this have been done, and still more will assuredly be done in the next few years. The first radars were not militaiy devices at all, but instruments used to probe the structure of the ionosphere by vertical soundings. These date back to 1920, 6 years before K. G. Jansky made his first iRppriiitcd by permission from Sky and Telescope, vol. 20, No. 2, July 1960. => Operated with support from the U.S. Army, Navy, and Air Force. 267 268 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1960 radio astronomy discoveries. In this article we shall omit the fasci- nating story of radar studies of the ionosphere, of meteor trails and aurorae, and concentrate on extraterrestrial objects, such as the moon, planets, sun, and the tenuous contents of interplanetary space. Radar came dramatically to the attention of astronomers in 1946, when war-developed equipment proved capable of bouncing an echo off the moon, 240,000 miles away. For the next 12 years, the story of radar astronomy was that of moon echoes. Over that entire period, rapid improvements were being made in radar technology, yet these were still not sufficient to permit detection of the next most distant target, Venus. Then, within a year of the March 1959 announcement of successful contact with Venus, by a group imder Robert Price at Lincoln Labora- tory, there came the news that V. R. Eshleman's team at Stanford Uni- versity had detected solar echoes (February 1960). And there is talk that radar contact with Mars may be attempted during its opposition in December 1960, or at the February 1963 opposition. Wliy so much sudden activity after a 12-year interval when only the moon was observable ? THE EFFECT OF DISTANCE The reasons are clear when one appreciates the important role that distance plays in a radar detection. Venus at inferior conjmiction is some 100 times more distant than the moon, whereas Mars at closest opposition is only 1% times as distant as Venus, and the sun 314 times. In a one-way transmission, the energy received is proportional to the inverse square of the distance; however, with radar the energy must not only reach the target but be propagated back again, suffering another inverse-square attenuation. The result is a received signal energy proportional to the inverse fourth power of distance. Venus has a diameter a little over 3I/2 times that of the moon, and thus roughly 10 times the reflecting area. But its 100-fold greater distance means that the energy returned is 10/(100)* or 10"' that from the moon, if for both bodies the power reflected is proportional to area. Making the same calculation for each of the planets, and plotting their detectability relative to the moon's, we get the pattern of points in figure 1. Several satellites and minor planets are also included. Clearly, after we have bridged the gap of 10^ in detectability from the moon to Venus, there are many radar targets in close succession. Another increase in lO'' in radar performance beyond that needed to detect Venus would encompass all the planets except Pluto — pro- vided detectability depended only upon the diameter of the body and its distance from earth. Unfortunately, matters are not this simple. Discre])ancies of several orders of magnitude from the numbei's given in figure 1 are possible, owing to different reflectivities of the planets' SOLAR SYSTEM AND RADAR — GREEN AND PETTENGILL 269 HEPTiJNE% UP AN US • GANYMEDEk TROJAN AS TFRO/DS < IO'min. DC MERCURY ^'{Qb-AuHAlURrjC} MERCURY , /: ■ yflNFER.' CONJ.} . MARS /^f^fi^ kPHOBO.S 10"';:^ : 10"^ . , : 10"" '' - I0"'3 :-IO-'^ - ■ : RADAR DETECTABILITY RELATIVE TO THE MOON Figure 1. — For the planets, a few satellites, and some asteroids, the radar detectabilities are compared with that of the moon. These results have been deduced only from sizes and relative distances, without regard to possible differences in surface reflectivity. For the asteroids, approximations are given, since their sizes are uncertain. All illustrations with this article are from MIT's Lincoln Laboratory, unless otherwise credited. surfaces or the absorptivities of their surrounding atmospheres. As a matter of fact, the observed strength of the return signal can indi- cate the reflectivity of a planet, since the diameter and distance are already known. RADAR TO THE MOON The first echoes whose characteristic delay time and Doppler fre- quency shift positively identified them as reflections from the moon were obtained by the U.S. Army Signal Corps in 1946. But it was puzzling that lunar echoes were not always observed even though con- ditions appeared to be favorable. Some hitherto unsuspected effect must have been taking place. Australian and British scientists showed that the observed fading had two causes. A relatively rapid component stemmed from chang- ing interference among simultaneous reflections from different regions of the lunar surface, as changing librations caused it to turn under the radar beam. And a propagation effect, Faraday rotation, was re- sponsible for the slow fading which caused the signal to disappear for 270 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1960 minutes at a time. This effect occurs when a wave passes through a region like the earth's ionosphere witli a magnetic field present. Un- der certain conditions, the plane of polarization of the radar signal was being sufficiently twisted, as it passed twice through the iono- sphere, that it arrived back at the receiving antenna in a cross-polar- ized orientation, producing zero output. By unraveling the sources of the fading, it became possible to elimi- nate the ionospheric effects (through the use of circularly polarized transmissions, for instance), in order to study more directly the reflec- tive properties of the lunar surface. In addition, the Faraday rota- tion could also be employed as a new tool to probe the properties of the terrestrial ionosphere. An unexpected property of lunar reflections at radio wavelengths came to light with the discovery, by J. H. Trexler at the Naval Re- search Laboratory, that when a short pulse was sent out, most of the returned signal power was confined to an interval of a few hundred microseconds. So brief an echo could have been produced only by a lunar terrain having relatively gentle slopes, as contrasted to the pre- cipitous and craggy surface shown in popular illustrations. Further verification was soon provided by accurate measurements of the travel time, proving that the sharp echo originated in the nearest region of the moon. It had long been known that at optical wavelengths the disk of the full moon exhibits a striking uniformity in apparent brightness from center to edge. The radar work made it clear that the nature of scat- tering from the moon's surface was distinctly different when measured with wavelengths of tens of centimeters instead of tenths of microns. Unlike its visual appearance, the moon at radar wavelengths has a strong highlight in the center. As radar transmitters became more powerful and antennas larger, the echoes received back from the moon stood higher and higher above the receiver noise level. Within the past few years, sufficient signal has become available at several stations to show that there is in fact observable echo power ail the way out to the lunar limb. Figure 2 shows the results of one such recent measurement. In addition to the highlight or specular component, there is a diffuse contribution Avhich very nearly obeys a Lambert scattering law. A reasonable fraction of the moon's surface, therefore, must have irregularities that are comparable in size to radar wavelengths — a conclusion of some impor- tance to those who may wish to land there. How can we learn where these rough portions are? Photographs, of course, tell quite a bit about the topography, and measurements of the lengths of shadows cast by objects on the moon's surface have given us much information about the height scale of its gi'oss features. The Smithsonian Report. 1960 — Green and Pettengi!! PLATE 1 Smithsonian Report, I960 — Green and Pettengill PLATE 2 ^V.^.,, ^^L-^-;^:'- "^^#^ An artist's conception of the 60U-foot antenna under construction lor the U.S. Nav\' at Sugar Grove, West Virginia. This huge steerable paraboloid will be precise enough to work at wavelengths as short as the neutral hydrogen line at 21 centimeters. It will be an important tool for future planetary radar experiments. The installation, known as the Naval Radio Research Station, is to cost about }?80,000,000. (U.S. Navy photograph.) Smithsonian Report, 1960 — Green and Pettengill Plate 3 1. This small crystal forms the heai't of the maser built by Robert II. Kinvsion for ampli- fying radar echoes from Venus. Tlie paramagnetic crystal accepts power delivered at 5,400 megacycles through the entry at the right, and uses it to augment the weak 440- megacycle signal that flows in the loop of wire around the crystal. 2. The CG-24 computer seen here works directly from the output of the Millstone Hill radar in tracking artificial satellites, and to sum up Venus echoes. It was used to make the lunar map in figure 4. SOLAR SYSTEM AND RADAR — GREEN AND PETTENGILL 271 -I 1 1 r T 1 1 r LOMMEL - SEELIGER LAW O 5 10 ECHO DELAY IN MILLISECONDS Figure 2. — Gordon H. Pettengill's observations of the radar brightness of the moon's disk at various distances from its center are shown by dots, each representing the sum of 24,000 pulses. At the frequency used, 440 megacycles per second, the outer portions of the moon scatter in accordance with Lambert's law, and not the Lommel-Seeliger law, which fits optical measurements better. Near its center, the lunar disk is much brighter by radar than Lambert's law predicts. At Stanford University, similar studies have been made. distribution of radio energy reflected from various parts of the disk would help fill remaining gaps in our understanding. If we had sufficiently narrow beam widths, a radar "picture" of the moon could be taken by simply scanning across its disk. However, another ap- proach that does not require resolution in angle has recently shown promise. 579421-— 61- -21 272 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 196 MAPPING THE MOON BY RADAR Suppose a pulse of radar energy reflected from the moon is ob- served. The echo will have a longer duration than the original pulse, because the reflection from the edge of the moon reaches us later than that from the center of the disk. Hence, by selecting a part of the returning signal within a limited time interval, we know that we are observing a ring-shaped portion of the disk, centered on its midpoint. But how do we isolate the energy reflected from a particular part of this ring ? To achieve tliis, advantage is taken of the changing libration of the moon, which causes a slow apparent turning of the moon as seen by a terrestrial observer. At any moment, half of the moon's face is approaching us and half receding, with respect to the center of the disk. Thus the frequency of the energy returned from the ring differs from point to point, in a predictable way, because of the Doppler effect. Figure 3 shows the relation between range and frequency for a turning spherical body such as the moon. If we could arrange to measure simultaneously both range and frequency with sufficient precision, some semblance of a map could be prepared. The separation of returns from different parts of the lunar surface is possible because the energy received at a given range and given frequency must have been reflected only from two definite points on the moon. Tecluiiques which have been available for years give adequate accuracy in range. The frequency measurement, on the other hand, calls for a new level of stability, several parts in 10" over the observing interval of 2.5 seconds, if useful resolution is to be achieved. This stability has recently been obtained, and figure 4 shows some experimental results gathered by this teclinique. It is hoped that a number of these measurements will make it possible to match the observed spectra with specific parts of the limar disk, and build up a picture of the moon in terms of radar reflectivity. The span of frequencies covered by the echo is determined by the product of the target's radius and turning rate. Also, the total time duration of the echo is a direct measure of the radius. Hence, the rotational rate of a planet may be found by radar. Such a study of Venus would be very important, since the length of that planet's day is still miknown. Perhaps the most interesting property of these metli- ods is that angular resolution is not required. As radar capability improves, Venus and Mars may be studied in detail with good surface resolution, without recourse to impossibly small antenna beam widths. FUTURE TECHNIQUES AND EQUIPMENT The application of these methods to very distant targets will require continuing efforts in four major areas: Transmitters, antennas, low- SOLAR SYSTEM AND RADAR — GREEN AND PETTENGILL 273 TURNING AXIS ECHO TO EARTH C ECHO in RECEDING Decreased Frequency Normal Frequency APPROACHING SIDE MOON MOON APPROACHING Increased Frequency Figure 3. — Mapping the moon by radar. In diagram I, by selecting thatpart of the echo within a limited interval in range, we observe only the shaded area, a ring on the moon as seen from the earth In IL C is the center of the disk, and AB is the axis around which the moon appears to turn, because of changing libration. Here AB has been arbitrarily drawn perpendicular to the line of sight. Half of the turning disk is approaching, half receding. By further selecting a limited frequency interval, we observe only the narrow strip of disk between the vertical lines. In III, looking down on the moon, we see one of two small areas thus isolated by the combined selection of range and frequency. Com- pare III with the observational record in figure 4. 274 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1960 ^M^!»Mu.^^wiiA^ Figure 4. — This preliminary radar map of the moon is from 440-megacycle observations with the 84-foot Millstone Hill antenna on January 8, 1960, at 0:04 Universal time The sharp semicircular boundary corresponds to the moon's edge seen from above (as in III of fig. 3), the part of the moon nearest the earth being at the top of the map. The range increases downward by steps of 0.0005 second of radar echo time per line. Since the echoes from the center of the moon as we see it are enormously stronger than the limb echoes (bottom), the signaLstrengths have been scaled down by the factors labeled at the left. noise receivers, and signal-processing techniques. The average power available at frequencies extending from 30 megac^^cles per second to 30,000 megacycles must be increased. In many cases, the radio power available at present is already crowding the capacity of a single trans- mission line. New methods are needed to generate and distribute the power over the antenna surface without having to funnel it all through one transmission line. In order to preserve complete knowledge of the transmitted waveform, these new transmitters must not distort the output, even at the highest frequencies and powers that may be used. Perhaps the most important field for improvement is antenna capa- bility. In radar systems, the antenna plays a dual role, contributing to the outgoing "power-on-target," and also determining the amount of scattered signal that may be gathered into the receiver. At the present time, antenna designs so nearly achieve full theoretical effi- ciency, for a given size and operating frequency, that little remains but to increase the collecting area if more sensitivity is to be realized. Certainly the current trend lies in that direction. An example of the SOLAR SYSTEM AND RADAR — GREEN AND PETTENGILL 275 approach that has been used at rehitively low frequencies (30-60 mega- cycles) is the Stanford solar radar installation, shown in plate 1. For the major part of the spectrum available to radar astronomy (substantially the same region of interest in radio astronomy), how- ever, the choice seems to favor a parabolic reflector illuminated by a relatively simple antenna located at its focus. An instance of a very large paraboloid under construction is seen in plate 2. To a certain extent, the value of an antenna of given size may be improved by operation at a higher frequency (shorter wavelength). As the wavelength is shortened, the reflecting paraboloid forms a nar- rower beam, concentrating more of the transmitted energy on the target. But the dimensional accuracy of the antenna and its mount must be proportionately greater. Furthermore, above 10,000 mega- cycles absorption in the earth's lower atmosphere becomes important. And in some cases, as the sun, the reflection properties of the target tend to place an upper limit on useful frequencies. Although much work may be carried on with the simple displays that conventional radars use — such as oscilloscopes and cameras — a digital computer of some sort is required for more advanced signal processing. When the signal-to-noise ratio of the desired return falls below unity, special processing is necessary to extend the detec- tion sensitivity. But even where sufficient signal is available, com- puters are needed if techniques such as those described for lunar map- ping are to be attempted. Finally, a continued effort is required to reduce receiver noise tem- peratures, a problem discussed by F. D. Drake in Sky and Telescope for December 1959, page 87. Masers and variable-reactance amplifiers appear promising, and in the future may be improved so much that the residual noise level will be limited only by the background tempera- ture of the sky or, sometimes, the target. This theoretical limit is already near at hand in some cases, although the availability of reliable amplifiers using these principles at all interesting frequencies is still limited. THE VENUS EXPERIMENTS Initial astronomical use of such a device came in February 1958, when Lincoln Laboratory employed a 440-megacycle solid-state maser (pi. 3, fig. 1) in its first Venus observations, described on page 384 of the May 1959 issue of Sky and Telescope. When the experiment was repeated, at the next inferior conjunction in September 1959, a parametric amplifier was used. In both cases the background noise at the receiver input was kept down to 170° Kelvin. The 440-megacycle transmitter sent a sequence of several thousand pulses, each 0.002 second long and several hundred kilowatts in peak power, into the 84-foot Millstone Hill antenna dish, which was pointed 276 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1960 at Venus. The pulse sequence lasted for the entire 5-niinute round- trip travel time, so the last pulse was transmitted just before the echo of the first was due. Then the antenna output was switched over to feed the low-noise receiver, whose output was recorded on tape and later processed in a digital computer. Each such 10-minute operation constituted a "run." The processing had two purposes. First, the individual echoes were much too weak to be distinguished from the background noise, so it was necessary to add together all of the several thousand received echoes-plus-noise to build up the signal-to-noise ratio. Since the echoes have a more or less fixed structure, and the noise is different from pulse to pulse, the former add up faster than the noise. A second function of the signal-processing equipment was to deter- mine the correct value of the planet's distance. The transmitted sequence of pulses was deliberately made nonperiodic, since otherwise it would be impossible to tell which received pulse corresponded to a particular transmitted one. By matching up the outgoing and returning patterns, no ambiguities in time of travel will remain. This matching is too lengthy a job for the computer to do wliile the observations are in progress, so in the 1958 experiment the received signals were recorded for later treatment. In the second Venus ex- periment, a digital computer (pi. 3, fig. 2) located at the radar site was programed to do part of the processmg during each actual run. At the 1959 Venus conjunction, an experiment similar to this was carried out by J. V. Evans at Jodrell Bank in England. Our labora- tory's 1958 work had produced four valid runs, of which two con- tained large-output signals agreeing in range. Since it was thought that the 25-million-mile distance to Venus had been measured to better than 250 miles, this implied that the solar parallax had been redetermined to within 1 part in 100,000. Over 150 rims were made during the 1959 Lincoln Laboratory effort, yet no echoes as strong as those of 1958 were observed, either in England or America, though the former group did get weak indications for a distance consistent with the solar parallax determined in the 1958 experiment. It is difficult to explain the disparity between the results obtained at the two Venus conjunctions. Our current feeling is that the planet's reflectivity may be highly variable with time, and that the two suc- cesses in 1958 were observations made on very favorable occasions. SOLAR SYSTEM DISTANCES Astronomers, in specifying the mean distance of the earth from the sun, ordinarily speak of the corresponding solar parallax — the angular radius of the earth as seen from the center of the sun. Several pro- posed values of the solar parallax, with their probable errors, are SOLAR SYSTEM AND RADAR — GREEN AND PETTENGILL 277 SOUAR PARALL-AX in SECONDS OF ARC. Venus Radar Average of 1958 1 I — 1889-1924 ::ir T ffl p?_: One Par 1 in 10^ lb - ' 8.790 I 8.800 RESIOtg SEARCHED A 1 iTsi I9S8 1 8.810 Figure 5. — Solar parallax is often used to specify the mean distance from the earth to the sun. Lincoln Laboratory's value from Venus radar experiments in 1958 is here compared with others, the probable errors being indicated by the shadings: 1931 Eros 0.001 second of arc; 1950 Eros, 0.0004; 1958 Venus, 0.0001; and 1889-1924 (seven de- terminations), 0.001 second. compared in figure 5. II. Spencer Jones' 1931 result is from tri angula- tion of Eros in that year; E. liabe's 1950 determination is from perturbations of Eros, while the 1889-1924 figure is the average of seven optical methods. The value of 8.800 seconds of arc is not an observed but an adopted one, used in ephemerides. With these is compared the 1958 radar evaluation. The distressing thing about this compilation is the wide variance among the proposed numbers, with even the regions of probable error failing to overlap. It is hoped that additional radar observations will clear up the discordance. But there is more to the story of interplanetaiy radar distance measurements than refining the value of the solar parallax. The method should ultimately allow the determination of the orbits of some planets to within a few miles. Wlien this accuracy is attained, gravitational perturbations of higher order will have to be considered in interpreting what is observed. It should also be possible to study the relativistic motions of the perihelia of several other planets besides Mercury. Mars is especially attractive since it comes fairly near to us, has a rather eccentric orbit, and has an atmosphere whose retard- ing effect on the radar signal is probably negligible. The effect of the intervening medium on the signal's speed of travel is important. By far the largest effect is caused by the dielectric constant differing slightly from unity, owing to free electrons in interplanetary space and in the ionospheres of the earth and the target planet. This retardation is greater at lower frequencies. For the 440-megacycle frequency used in the Venus experiment, it was calcu- lated that a distance error of less than one part in a million would result from the combined effects of our ionosphere and an average of 1,000 electrons per cubic centimeter throughout the intervening space. Had the measurement been made at 50 megacycles, the corre- sponding discrepancy would have been 1 part in 60,000. We can put this difference to work in studying the electron content 278 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1960 of space and in the neighborhood of the target. If a pair of radars operating at widely separated frequencies, such as 50 and 400 mega- cycles, can measure the travel time to distant bodies to 1 part in 60,000, and if the effect of the earth's ionosphere can be subtracted out, then the density of free electrons in intei-planetary space could be deduced from the excess time of flight obsei-ved with the low-frequency radar over that of the high-frequency one. (Of course, this experiment would tell us only the total number of electrons between us and the planet, and in the absence of other data we could not say what fraction was in space and what fraction was in the vicinity of the planet.) Finally, knowing the total electron content, we could improve the original range measurement. RADAR AND THE SUN The procedure that was used to detect echoes from the sun's ionized corona is much like that employed for Venus, with two important differences. First, the sun itself generates so much radio noise that there is no particular point in working hard to minimize receiver noise. Second, the operation is at much lower frequencies, 20 to 50 megacycles being required. If higher frequencies are used, the signal penetrates so far into the corona before reflection that absorption losses become severe. At still lower frequencies, the signal is apt to be blocked by our own ionosphere. In April 1959, the first successful solar radar experiment was car- ried out by researchers at Stanford University. (See p. 281 of the March 1960 issue of Slcy and Telescope.) The strength of the echoes turned out to be in very close agreement with theoretical predictions published by the Australian radio astronomer F. J. Kerr in 1952. One important difference was that the returns appeared to come more or less uniformly from a wide range of depths in the corona. This might be expected if the coronal region had large irregularities. The Stanford experiment used a high-power communications trans- mitter operating at 26 megacycles, feeding the array of eight rhombic antennas already partly shown in figure 5. The transmission con- sisted of a series of alternate 15-second on-and-off periods lasting for 15 minutes, approximately the time of flight to the sun and back. Again, a digital computer processed the received signal, so that the combined energy of all the individual returns could be used to enhance the final signal-to-noise ratio. With the rapid progress of radar techniques, we may look forward to even more revealing radar studies of the sun over the next few years. Range-frequency maps of the corona, analogous to those already made for the moon, might unlock many secrets about the dynamics of the sun's outer envelope. SOLAR SYSTEM AND RADAR — GREEN AND PETTENGILL 279 Even tliougli some important things have been done, the history of radar astronomy lias barely begun to unfold. As usual when a new tool becomes available, the most interesting results will be the ones we cannot foresee. Reprints of the various articles in this Report may be obtained, as long as the supply lasts, on request addressed to the Editorial and Publications Division, Smithsonian Institution, Washington 25, D.C. Digital Computers: Their History, Operation, and Use By E. M. McCoRMicK National Science Foundation INTRODUCTION In the past 15 years digital computers have emerged as an interest- ing and extremely useful tool not only for scientists but for workers in many other fields of human endeavor. Their use has been so wide- spread as to suggest that they may be the basis for another revolution comparable in significance to the industrial revolution. Their appeal and usefulness are due largely to the fact that they perform tasks which heretofore have required "intellectual" effort for their ac- complislmient. Much has been said about the ability of computers to perform in relatively short periods of time tasks which otherwise might require the brainpower of many humans working over long periods of time. Since computers do work which man normally does mentally, in contrast to doing jobs which require musclepower, there is some confusion and misconception about digital computers and their use. Man does not know nearly as much about intellectual activi- ties as he does about physical. Further, he is less able to judge them by measures which are commonly understood. First impressions of digital computers are impressive and perhaps confusing. Computers are expensive devices costing thousands or even millions of dollars. They consist of hundreds of thousands of electronic components interconnected in what appears to be a vei-y complicated manner. Some of the equipment for putting information into or taking information out of computers is perhaps familiar, since commonly used electric typewriters and business accoimting machines have been adapted for this purpose. However, much of the rest of the equipment is unfamiliar. Digital computers are information-processing devices. The infor- mation is generally represented by numbers and the processing in- volves the performing of simple arithmetic operations such as adding, subtracting, multiplying, and dividing. Scientists use digital com- 281 282 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 196 puters for solving very complicated mathematical problems, and businessmen use them for the clerical operations associated with the processing of their data. HISTORY Mechanical aids to computation go back to the abacus, an ancient device still widely used in many parts of the world. The number representation system of a form of the abacus, with two beads above a bar and five below for each decimal digit, is now widely used in an electronic equivalent form, biquinary^ in many modern computers. The adding machine was invented in 1642 by Blaise Pascal. This type of calculator was developed esx^ecially in the last century and is now widely used. Automatic multiplication and division by cal- culators was invented in 1902. The man who had the original concept of what is now known as a digital computer was Charles Babbage, 1792--1871. Babbage was a professor of mathematics at Cambridge University but engaged in many activities outside the field of mathematics.^ Bab1)age first con- ceived of a "difference engine" in 1822. This mechanical device would permit the automatic production of mathematical tables such as logaritlims, sine, cosine, and other numerical functions. However, before he had completed this project he conceived of a much more general computing device called an "analytical engine." It contained most of the concepts now considered to be essential in a digital com- puter. He drew up elaborate detailed drawings for the device. How- ever, it was mechanical and required skills not then available. Only part of the machine was built ; it is now in the British Science Museum. Despite the fact that it was never built, the significance and impli- cations of such a device were miderstood by a number of people at that time. Lady Ada Augustus Lovelace, 1815-52, daughter of Lord Byron, was quite familiar with the analytical engine and its potential- ities. Much of what we know about the device is due to her writings on the subject. About 100 years after Babbage, circumstances made it possible to build a digital computer. During World War II tecliniques were developed which were used for building the first electromechanical computers using electrical relays. Mark I was built at Harvard in 1944. Electronic techniques, however, permitted much higher rates of operation. The first electronic computer, ENIAC, was built at the University of Pennsylvania in 1946. It used 18,000 tubes, and with the unreliability of tubes at that time it was easy to "prove" that tubes 1 As Indicated In Bowden (see blblloprapbyl, I?abbn?re Invented the cowcatcher, the speedometer, suggested a fixed fee for posting letters, made an operations research analysis of the pin Industry, was the first to eall across a railroad viaduct In a handcar, among other Interesting activities. DIGITAL COMPUTERS — McCORMICK 283 would fail faster than they could be replaced. Nevertheless, this and many other problems were solved, and many thousands of computers have been built since tlien. It was 1950 before the first digital com- puter was built with all the characteristics now considered to be essential. Interestingly, many of the devices adapted for use in computers have been available for some time. The basic bistable electronic cir- cuit (the fiip-flop) was invented in 1919. The equipment for mput to and output from digital computers is adapted from communication and business-accounting devices. Punched paper tape was used by Samuel F. B. Morse, inventor of the telegraph. The familiar punched card was used by Jacquard in 1801 and is still in use to control weav- ing looms for making designs in cloth. (Babbage had intended to use punched cards in his analytical engme.) Hollerith adapted punched cards for the 1890 census, and many other uses have been made of them since then. And, finally, the mathematics needed for the logical design of digital computers was developed by another Eng- lish mathematician of the last century, George Boole, 1815-64. COMPUTERS VERSUS CALCULATORS The solving of mathematical problems and processing of business data have been accomplished for some time by the use of manual cal- culators. How are computers different from calculators, which also do arithmetic operations ? To answer this we must realize that doing the arithmetic operations is only part of the process of solving a prob- lem when using a calculator. Deciding what numbers to put into the calculator, putting them into it, and after performing the arithmetic, deciding what to do with the numbers resulting from it and then doing it all involve more time than the aritlmietic itself. Computers differ from calculators in that computers do the complete job of solving a problem. They contain within themselves all the data pertinent to a problem and all the instructions for solving it, includ- ing alternate sets of instructions to be followed on the basis of deci- sions which the machine itself can make. Thus a digital computer is capable of completely solving a problem at electronic speeds without human intervention during the solution. However, the setting up of a computer to do this is frequently time consuming and expensive. But what has a computer really gained over a calculator and its operator except speed ? First, we must realize that for many purposes this speed advantage itself is sufficient gain. Being able to do hun- dreds of thousands or even millions of operations in the time formerly required for one is a tremendous advantage in solving a problem. Ways for solving problems involving a very large number of opera- tions have been known for many years, but the time and labor required 284 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1960 made them impracticable. For example, the value of pi can be cal- culated to any number of decimal places by several different formulas. William Shanks, 1812-82, an English mathematician, spent many years calculating the value of pi to 707 places. The results were pub- lished in 1854, and 92 years passed before a computer duplicated this remarkable feat.^ Then in 1954 a computer calculated pi to over 3,000 places in 13 minutes computing time. At present it could be done in considerably less time. Incidentally, the method of calculation was the same as that used by Shanks. There are many other problems that can be represented mathemati- cally, the solution of which required a tremendously large number of operations. The solving of a large number of simultaneous linear equations is one example. Others are the "monte carlo" and relaxation methods of solvinsr the intricate mathematics associated with atomic energy studies. However, to answer the question above, digital computers do have advantages other than speed. They can perform logical operations as well as arithmetic. This is a very important property, which we will consider further after discussing some of the details of how a computer works and of the particular arithmetic of a computer. HOW COMPUTERS WORK Mechanical calculators use a system of motors, wheels, levers, dials, and other mechanical devices to perform the operations required of these calculators. The motor and wheels accomplish various numbers and types of mechanical operations, and the levers convey these opera- tions to the dials for indicating the numbers. Each dial has 10 posi- tions on it for the numbers through 9. Digital computers, on the other hand, are predominantly electronic rather than mechanical devices, but the electronic operations are analogous to many of the mechanical operations in calculators. Num- bers are represented in computers by scries of electrical pulses travel- ing from one part of the computer to another by wires. (These pulses are much like those produced in dialing a telephone.) They occur at such a high speed (hundreds of thousands or millions per second) that mechanical devices cannot be used to produce, control, or count them. Instead, electronic devices called gates^ which use radio tubes or transistors, are used. Electronic -fiip-iiop devices (de- vices which are in one condition or another, with no intermediate positions) also are widely used for counting pulses in computers. Many thousands of these gates and flip-flops may be used in any one computer. » Shanks had verified hlg results to 500 places. The computer solution, however, showed that Shanks had erred so that hla figures beyond the 527th place are Incorrect. DIGITAL COMPUTERS — McCORMICK 285 To obtain the very high speed and extreme reliability required for accurately producing, controlling, and counting pidses, electronic engineers use devices ^Yhich represent numbers not by a base of 10, but by a base of 2, that is, a binary system using only and 1. Thus numbers are represented by combinations of many individual elec- tronic devices, each of Avliich are either on or off, or by pulses which are either present or absent at any given time. Many of these elec- tronic devices have small neon lamjis connected to them so that the lamps either glow or not depending on whether that device is repre- senting a 1 or a 0. These lamps flash on and off quite rapidly as a computer operates and are frequently shown in movies or television views of computers. The binary system of representing numbers will be considered in detail later. Since the nmnbers inside a computer are represented by electrical pulses sent from one part of the computer to another, the input and output devices for computers must operate in much the same manner. A common device for input and out]:)ut for a computer is quite similar to a teletype machine. The numbers are represented by combinations of holes punched in a paper tape. As this tape is moved over a reading device, the presence or absence of holes in the tape produces a series of electrical pulses Avhich the computer uses to represent the numbers. Similarly, a series of pulses in a computer can cause an output device to punch a series of holes in a paper tape. These pulses can also cause an electric tj^pewriter to type the numbers in the usual form. This is desirable as the numbers are difficult to read as holes in a tape. Further, the typing of numbers on the keyboard of an input device will produce a punched paper tape suitable for input to the computer. Many computers use business-accounting type machines for input and output. Numbers are represented by holes in the familiar pimched card. However, the basic operation of these devices is essen- tially the same as considered above. METHOD OF SOLVING PROBLEMS An analogy can be used to illustrate the method by which a com- puter solves problems. Consider a room in which there is a large nmnber of file cabinets, each file drawer marked by a number. Each drawer contains a slip of paper which is either a number or an instruc- tion for some action to be taken. In this room is a clerk who goes to the first drawer and obeys the instruction he finds there. He will then go to the second drawer and obey the instruction there, and so on. The only exception to this sequence is when the instruction in a drawer specifically states that the next instruction is to be taken from some other storage location. The clerk, in obeying most of 286 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1960 the instructions, will have to refer to some other specified drawer for the data he needs to follow out the instruction. He also has a pad of paper on which to store temporarily the results of each operation he performs in obeying these instructions. Except for the first drawer, the clerk will not know in advance which drawers contain numbers and which contain instructions. Yet by following the above procedure, which involves performing very simple operations at each step, it is possible for the clerk to solve a large number of problems including some of the most abstruse mathematical problems. The clerk will not need to know what he is doing or why. As an example let us consider in detail how this technique can be used to calculate the value of a sum of money subject to compound interest. Assume that we wish to do this for just 20 periods of inter- est accumulation. Further assume that the file drawers (storage locations) are numbered 000, 001, 002, and so on. The clerk goes first to the first drawer (number 000) and finds there an instruction which says, "Take the number in drawer 020 and write it on the pad." The clerk then goes to drawer marked 020 and in it finds a number representing the initial value of principal. Having written this on the pad, he next goes to drawer 001 and reads the instruction there. It says, "Multiply the number on the pad by the number in drawer 021 ; leave only the answer on the pad." Since the number in 021 will represent the interest rate, the result of this multiplication would be the amount of interest earned. The clerk now goes to drawer 002, where he is instructed to "Add the number in 020 to the number on the pad." In so doing the new value of principal is computed. He then goes to 003, where the next instruction is, "Store the number on the pad in drawer 020, leaving the pad blank." (This storing of a number in a drawer always means that the number that was previously in that location is erased. However, the process of reading a number in a drawer does not affect that number.) Now the clerk, upon going to drawer 004 for his next instruction, might find, "Go to storage location 000 for your next instruction." If so, he will again repeat the instructions in 000, 001, 002, 003, and 004 in turn, but this time using the new value of principal. This sequence of operations will be repeated over and over again. Each time this "loop" is repeated the number in 020 will increase, representing the value of principal with the accumulated interest for that number of interest periods. Thus if the initial number in 020 represented $10,000 and the number in 021 represented 5 percent, then the values in 020 would represent $10,500 after the first loop, $11,025 after the second, $11,556.25 after the third, and so on. However, this process would not solve the problem as originally stated, which specified that the process must stop after 20 calculations. DIGITAL COMPUTERS — McCORMICK 287 Yet the set of operations resulting from the above instructions would go on indefinitely unless the procedure is modified. The modification would start with clianging the instruction in 004 to "Put the number in drawer 022 on the pad." (The number in 022 will be when the problem starts.) Next in 005 the instruction would be, "Add the num- ber on the pad to the number in 023 and leave only the answer on the pad." Since the number in 023 is 1, the sum will be 1. In OOC the instruction is, "Store the number on the pad in location 022, leaving the pad blank." Thus a 1 is stored in 022 in place of the which was there. The number in 022 thus indicates the number of interest calculations that have been made. To use tliis to determine when to stop, the mstruction in 007 is, "Take the number in 022 and write it on the pad." Then in 008, "Subtract from the number on the pad the number in drawer 024, leaving only tlie result on the pad." Since the number in 024 is 20, the first time this instruction is obeyed the result will be — 19. Now assume that in 009 there is a decision instruction of this nature: "If the number on the pad is or positive, go to the next instruction in order; if the number is negative, erase it and go to drawer 000." Thus the clerk would in this case go back to 000 and repeat the entire process. However, the next time he came to 022 he w^ould find a 1 in it which would be clianged to a 2, leaving —18 after executing the instruction in 008 the second time. Thus in response to instruction in 009 the process would repeat again. The third time the result would be —17, and so on. However, after the value of principal plus accumulated interest has been computed for the 20th time, the result of executing the instruction in 008 will be a on the pad. Now when tlie instruction in 009 is encountered, the result will be that tlie clerk will go for the first time to 010 for his next instruction. Thus after 20 iterations the program of activity indicated by the instnic- tions in the drawers results in a "branch" to an alternate course of action. Tlie instruction in 010 can be simply "Stop" or it could be the first instruction of a sequence which will solve some other problem. A digital computer generally solves problems in just this manner. The "storage" of a computer takes the place of the group of file cabinets. Each drawer is an individual storage location containing a "word" w^hich is a sequence of numbers which may be data or an instiniction. Each storage location is identified by an "address" much as houses are identified by different addresses. Instead of the pad of paper, a computer has an electronic storage device called an "accumulator." (This corresponds to tlie row of dials on the top of many manually operated calculators.) The equipment for storage and for performing the duties of the clerk are electronic and operate automatically at high rates of speed. 679421—61 22 288 ANNUAL REPORT SAOTHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1960 The speed of a digital computer means the speed at which it can perform aritlmietic operations. This may be tens of thousands per second. The size of a computer generally indicates the amount of information that may be contained in its storage, possibly millions of words. Note that the computer need do only a limited number of opera- tions. In the program given above, the "operation" to be performed in storage locations 000, 002, 004, 005, and 007 are all the same. They differ only in the address of the number to be added to tlie number already in the accumulator. Thus each instruction consists of two parts, an operation portion and an address, or in other words, what to do and wheref rom to do it. Numbers can be used to designate operations. Thus the add opera- tion in drawers or storage locations 000, 002, 004, 005, and 007 can be arbitrarily designated to the computer as "1," the sitbtract operation in 008 as "2," the multiply in 001 as "3," the store of 003 and 006 as "5," and the decision operation in 009 as "7." If each word of a computer consists of 10 decimal digits with the operation digit in the 6th posi- tion and the address digits in the 8th, 9th, and 10th positions, then the above compound-interest problem can be specified to a computer as shown in table 1. This is a "program" for computer operation; Table 1. — Example of a digital computer program to compute compound interest * Storage location Instruction or number Remarks 000 0000010020 0000030021 0000010020 0000050020 0000010022 0000010023 0000050022 0000010022 0000020024 0000070000 Take principal. 001 Multiply bv interest rate. 002 ... Add principal. 003 Store new principal. 004 Take tally. 005 Add 1. 006 Store as new tally. 007 Take new tally. 008 - Subtract 20. 009 Test for repeat. 020 Principal. 021 Interest rate. 022 Tally. 023 0000000001 0000000020 024 * Tables 1, G, 7, and 8 and figure 1 are reprinted by permission from "Digital Computer Primer," copyright 1959, McGraw-IIlll Book Co., Inc. DIGITAL COMPUTERS — McCORMICK 289 sometimes also called a "routine." The first colmnn indicates tlie storage location of the instructions and the data used in the problem. The column "Instruction or number" indicates the contents of each of these storage locations. The "Remarks" column is given merely to assist humans in understanding what is being done ; the computer makes no use of it. A thorough grasp of the sequence of computer operations used in solving the compomid-interest problem is essential to the understanding of digital computers. Table 1 also shows how instructions can have the same form as numbers used as data and hence are interchangeable with data. Thus a computer can do aritlunetic operations on its instructions, an interest- ing and useful characteristic of digital computers. The above example also illustrates the different manner in which a computer and a human would solve a problem. The most important difference is the extreme detail of the instructions that must be given to the computer, and especially the manner in which these instruc- tions must be stated in order to use the limited number of operations that a computer can perform. Contrast this with the instructions that one would give to a human to do the same job. Even if the calculation of compound interest had to be explained, it would not be necessary to go into such detail to insure that just 20 sets of calcula- tions were made. It will also be noted that many of the operations are concerned with the manipulation of data (going to and from storage, etc.) rather than with the calculations themselves. These "bookkeeping" or "redtape" operations occupy a considerable portion of the program and of the time used in solving the problem. This applies also, however, to the use of a calculator for solving a problem. In a computer it is more obvious, as the instructions for these opera- tions have the same general form as the instructions for doing the arithmetic itself. THE PARTICULAR ARITHMETIC OF COMPUTERS Aside from manipulation of data and decisionmaking, the essential operations of a computer are simple arithmetic. Since we all know how to add, subtract, multiply, and divide, it may be of interest to know how computers perform these functions. Generally their method differs from that of humans not only in the number system, but also in details of all arithmetic operations. Binary numbers. — Most modern digital computers use a binaiy num- ber system rather than the familiar decimal system. There are only 2 marks, and 1, instead of 10 different marks, through 9. Each position on either side of the binary point (corresponding to the decimal point) is a power of 2. This is illustrated by table 2, which shows the binary equivalent of decimal digits through 9. The right- 290 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1960 Table 2. — Table of binary equivalents to decimal numbers Decimal 1 2 3 4 Binary . 0000 . 0001 . 0010 . 0011 . 0100 Decimal 5 6 7 9. Binary . 0101 . 0110 . 0111 . 1000 . 1001 most binary position indicates the presence (by a 1) or the absence (by a 0) of a 1, the next position the presence or absence of a 2, the next a 4, an 8, and so on. Thus 0111 is 4+2 + 1, or 7; 1001 is 8 + 1, or 9; 1100010001 would be 512 + 256 + 16+1, or 785; 110.011 would be 4+2+1/4 + 1/8, or 63/8. The reason for using a binary notation system is a practical one. Computers consist of devices which must be very fast and extremely reliable. The electronic devices which best meet these requirements are two-state (bistable) elements. Thus it is possible only to know whether these devices represent one bit of information, that is, either a or 1. For example, whether a certain spot on a magnetic tape is magnetized in one direction or in the other direction, whether a vacuum tube is conducting current or not, a hole is punched in a card or it is not, etc. Binary addition. — Another advantage of the binary number sj^stem is that binary arithmetic is quite simple. The binary addition table is given in table 3. The two numbers A and B can each have values of or 1 so that there are only four possibilities to consider. An example of binary addition which uses all four combinations is given in table 4. However, binary representation means that about Sy^ times as many marks are needed to represent a number as with the Table 3. — The binary addition table A B Carry Sura 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Table 4. — Binary addition and decimal equivalent Binary Decimal 110 10 10 8+4 =12 8 + 2 =10 10 110 16 + 4+2 = 22 DIGITAL COMPUTERS — McCORMICK 291 A B AND ' r NOT OR AND ^ '""'*■ ^ C^^AB S^ (A + 3)(AB) Figure 1. — Logical circuit for binary addition. decimal system. For example, the 3-decimal digit number 785 re- quires 10 binary bits 1100010001 for its representation. Thus a binary computer would need to do 3i/^ times as many binaiy operations to be equivalent to decimal aritlmietic. However, this is a small price to pay for the advantages gained. Eeferring back to table 3, we note that the conditions under which the swm digit is a 1 can be stated in words as, "when A is a 1 or B is a 1 and both A and B are not 1." Similarly, the condition for a 1 in the carry digit is, "when A is 1 and B is 1." The italicized words are important because they show how a binary addition operation can be expressed in words, and^ or^ and not^ which are terms with logical meaning. The basic ideas of and^ or^ and not are familiar to everyone and their use in digital computer adders is the same as in the usually understood concepts of these terms. It is thus possible to draw a logical diagram for binary addition as shown in figure 1. This figure should be compared with the above word statement on binary addition and with table 3. They are equivalent ways of expressing the same thing. The exact form of the adder in a digital computer varies from one computer design to another. The and^ or^ and not devices may use vacuum tubes, transistors, or magnetic devices. However, the logic, no matter how implemented, is the same. Obviously, the addition operation must be done for eacli pair of digits in the two numbers to be added. Furthermore, in general, it is not simply a matter of adding just two digits together; it is neces- sary also to add the carry digit from the previous less significant addition. Thus a full-adder considers all three inputs. The device of figure 1 is a half -adder since it considers only two inputs. A full adder can be formed by using two half adders. 292 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 19 60 The "logical design" in digital computers extends to much more than the adder. Most of the other operations of the computer, in- cluding storage and decision operations, can be expressed in logical terms and hence be composed of the same electronic logical devices. The logical design of a computer is indeed very complicated, and most computers use many thousand logical elements. So far we have considered only binary arithmetic. However, humans who put data into computers and read its answers are much more familiar with decimal numbers than with binary. Thus it is necessary to convert decimal numbers into some form of binary for input to a computer and to convert binary to decimal for output. The computer itself can do this converting. One way of doing this is to use combinations of binary digits to represent decimal digits in hinary-coded decimal systems. Table 2 can be considered as an ex- ample of such a system. By such methods it is possible to use digital computers as if they were true decimal devices, although in fact they all are binary in some form or another. Siibtraction. — Subtraction can be, and sometimes is, done in a man- ner comparable to addition, that is, the subtraction table is formed, the logical equivalent determined, and the corresponding electronic circuitry built. However, many computers use the adder to do subtraction by representing negative numbers by a complement notation. To understand this, consider table 5 where the left column gives the normal sequence of numbers from +5 backward to —5. It in- cludes the concepts of zero and negative numbers. A complement sys- tem for representing these numbers is given in the right column. (For convenience, we consider only four digit numbers.) Wlien the number is negative, the complement representation is the same as if the number were subtracted from 9999. The process of subtracting by adding the complement obviously is dependent on the fact that the complement can be obtained by a process simpler than subtraction, and indeed it can be done electronically. The sequence of numbers in the right "counter" column is unusual but is as valid as the usual sequence if a set of rules is used for manip- ulation that differs somewhat from the usual set. Examples are given in table 6. Note first that results are always obtained by adding. Further, when the sum of the two numbers exceeds the four-digit size assumed, then the carry is added back to the right end of the sum. This last rule is a result of the way the sequence of numbers was defined. It is due to the fact that 0000 is not given in this sequence and that zero is represented by 9999. Again the reasons for this will not be considered here, but it does simplify the computer design. It is suggeested that the reader try other examples using complements, such as adding zero (9999) to other numbers including itself. DIGITAL COMPUTERS — McCORMICK 293 Table 5. — Coniflement representation for negative numbers Number 5 4 3 2 1 Counter .. 0005 .. 0004 .- 0003 -. 0002 .- 0001 .- 9999 Number -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 Counter -- 9998 .- 9997 .. 9996 .- 9995 .. 9994 Table 6. — Counter column illustrates how complements can be used for handling negative numbers Number ( Counter + 5 0005 (A) -2 9997 +3 1 0002 Before end-around carry 0003 After end-around carry + 1 0001 (B) -4 9995 -3 9996 -2 9997 (C) -3 9996 -5 1 9993 Before 9994 After Multiplication. — Most computers do not multiply as such, that is, they do not use multiplication tables. They multiply by a process of repeated addition much as calculators do. The product of 3,514 by 7,59G could be obtained by adding 7,596 for a total of 3,514 times, but this would be a tedious process. However, by combining left shift operations (which are the equivalent of multiplying by 10 in a decimal machine or by 2 in a binary machine) with add operations, the number of additions required for multiplication can be considerably reduced. The details of how such a multiplication could be done are given in table 7. Assume that the multiplier 3,514 is initially in columns 2 through 5 and that the multiplicand 7,596 is added in columns 6 through 9. Each time the multiplicand is added, the number in col- umn 1 is reduced 1. When the number in column 1 is the whole accumulator is shifted one position to the left and the process repeated. The 18 steps involved in this particular multiplication should be noted in detail. In this example only 3 + 5 + 1 + 4 or a total of 13 additions would be required. Division. — Computer division also is generally done in a manner analogous to methods used in calculators. It involves successive 294 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 19 60 subtracting-, testing, correcting, and shifting operations. Table 8 shows how 26,693,578 can be divided by 7,596 to obtain 3,514 as the quotient with a remainder of 1,234. After an initial left shift, the process involves subtracting the divisor 7,596 from columns 2 through 5 of the dividend until the remainder is negative. This indicates that one too many subtractions has occurred, so the program adds the divi- sor back and then shifts the remainder one position to the left. Then the process repeats. Since a 1 is added in column 9 for each subtrac- tion which leaves a positive remainder, the final result is that the quo- tient (3,514) is in columns 6 through 9 and the remainder (1,234) is in columns 2 through 5. ^ABLE 7. — Steps in process of multiplying 3,514 by 7,596 to get 26,692,344 as a computer might do this multiplication Steps 1 Start 2 Shift 3 Add 4 Add 5 Add 6 Shift 7 Add 8 Add 9 Add 10 Add 11 Add 12 Shift 13 Add 14 Shift 15 Add 16 Add 17 Add 18 Add Columns 6 6 6 7 6 8 6 9 6 7 7 5 5 1 2 7 7 8 5 4 3 6 8 2 5 8 8 6 6 1 1 9 9 5 7 1 4 7 2 3 8 9 9 6 9 2 8 8 8 7 6 7 2 6 8 6 4 6 9 G 6 LOGICAL USES OF COMPUTERS So far we have considered digital computers only as they are fast equivalents of a clerk with a calculator. The clerk functions were assumed to be quite simple and the routine was spelled out in specific detail. It was over 100 yeai-s ago that Lady Lovelace * said that a digital computer "has no pretensions to originate anything. It can do whatever we know how to order it to perform." The statement is still true. It can be interpreted to indicate the limitations of com- puters in that humans must think through in advance everything that a computer might do and tell the computer specifically the course of * Her early Interest In computers Is considered on p. 282. DIGITAL COMPUTERS — McCORMICK 295 Table 8. — Hoio a computer might divide 20,693,578 by 7,506 to obtain a quotient of 3,514 and a remaitider of 1,234 Steps ( Oolurans 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 Start 2 6 6 9 3 5 7 8 2 Shift 2 6 6 9 3 5 7 8 3 Subtract 1 9 9 7 5 7 8 1 4 Subtract 1 1 5 1 5 7 8 2 5 Subtract 3 9 5 5 7 8 3 6 Subtract -0 3 6 9 4 2 1 7 7 Add 3 9 5 5 7 8 3 8 Shift 3 9 5 5 7 8 3 9 Subtract 3 1 4 5 9 7 8 3 1 10 Subtract 2 3 8 6 3 7 8 3 2 11 Subtract 1 6 2 6 T 1 7 8 3 3 12 Subtract 8 6 7 1 7 8 3 4 13 Subtract 1 7 5 7 8 3 5 14 Subtract -0 6 5 o 2 1 6 5 15 Add 1 7 5 7 8 3 5 16 Shift 1 7 5 7 8 3 5 17 Subtract 3 1 6 1 8 3 5 1 18 Subtract -0 4 4 3 5 1 6 4 9 19 Add 3 1 6 1 8 3 5 1 20 Shift 3 1 G 1 8 3 5 21 Subtract 2 4 9 2 3 5 1 22 Subtract 1 6 4 2 6 3 5 2 23 Subtract 8 8 3 3 5 3 24 Subtract ] 2 3 4 3 5 4 25 Subtract -0 6 3 6 2 6 4 8 5 26 Add 1 2 3 4 3 5 1 4 action in each case. However, it is perliaps more correct to interpret the statement to mean that the limitations encountered in using com- puters are more of a reflection on our ability as humans to use them than on the computers themselves. This is particularly true in the increasing use being made of com- puters as "logical" devices. While many useful human activities involve the use of arithmetic, many others require the solution of essentially logical problems. An executive managing a business con- cern, the oflicer directing a military operation, and a chess player are examples of people who must consider the often complicated situ- ations in which they find themselves and "decide" on an appropriate course of action. There are probably many more practical problems requiring a logical solution than those calling for arithmetic opera- tions. Thus the ability of computers to handle logic is particularly important. This ability may be considered an outgrowth of opera- tions already mentioned. The decision operation, "If the number in the accumulator is zero or positive, go to the next storage location for 296 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1960 the next instruction ; if it is negative, clear the accumulator and go to the storage location specified for the next instruction," is an example used in the compound interest problem. Most digital computei-s can use any of several decision operations. The binary notation incidentally is convenient for logical opera- tions. Tlie 1 and can represent words — true and false^ yes and no — as well as they can represent numbers. Furthermore, we noted that electronic computers use logical elements such as and, or, and not to do arithmetic, and since logical problems are also generally stated in these terms, obviously the same devices used for arithmetic opera- tions can be used for strictly logical operations. As an example of a logical problem, let us consider the "logic" of a two-way switch. Assume two switches, A (the upstairs switch) and B (the downstairs switch) where in each case represents the switch in the down position and 1 represents the switch in the up position. Assume further that the hall light is represented by S where is the light being off and 1 is the light being on. Further, we know that "the hall light is on when the upstairs switch is up and the downstairs switch is down or the upstairs switch is down mid the downstairs switch is up, but not when both switches are up or when both switches are down." How can this be represented in terms which have already been considered ? Tlie answer is the A, B, and Sum columns of table 3. There the A and B represented binary numbers being added, but the logic is the same. When the condition of the hall light being on is restated as "the upstairs switch is up or the downstairs switch is up and both the upstairs switch and the downstairs switch are not up" then it is directly analogous to the word statement previously given for the sum digit in binary addition. Of course, practical logical problems are much more complicated than indicated by this example, the number of different possibilities being enormous. To illustrate, let us consider how computers have been used for a process well recognized as a model of logic, that is, the proving of Euclidean plane geometry theorems. Plane geometry theorem pi'oving. — The use of a digital computer for proving theorems of plane geometry is illustrated by the example in figure 2, in which is given the machine proof that a certain con- struction involving the midpoints of two sides and two diagonals of a quadrilateral results in a parallelogram. Tlie general procedure used here for theorem proving is to work backward. Given as its goal to prove that a quadrilateral EFGII is a parallelogram, the computer first selects subgoals which would allow EFGH to meet the definition of a parallelogram. Each sub- goal causes further subgoals to be generated, and so on. There may DIGITAL COMPUTERS — ^McCORMICK 297 PREMISES *»*1HHh ******** QUAD-LATERAL ASCD POINT E MIDPOINT SEGMENT AB POINT F MIDPOINT SEGMENT AC POINT G MIDPOINT SEGMENT CD POINT H MIDPOINT SEGMENT BO TO PROVE «•»«««••«**•««' ^ PARALELOGRAM EFGH SYNTACTIC SYMMETRIES «»*««»*»»♦«#»»«»♦♦»»#»»•*# BA, AB. DC» CD. EE. HF. GG.' FH CA. DB. AC. BD. GE. FF, EG. HH DA. CB. BC. AD. GE. HF. EG. FH PROOF *********** SEGMENT DG EQUALS SEGMENT GC DEFINITION OF MIDPOINT SEGMENT CF EQUALS SEGMENT FA DEFINITION OF MIDPOINT TRIANGLE DCA ASSUMPTION BASED ON DIAGRAM PRECEDES OGC DEFINITION OF MIDPOINT PRECEDES CFA DEFINITION OF MIDPOINT SEGMENT GF PARALLEL SEGMENT AD SEGMENT JOINING MIDPOINTS OF SIDES OF TRIANGLE IS PARALLEL TO BASE SEGMENT HE PARALLEL SEGMENT AD SYNTACTIC CONJUGATE SEGMENT GF PARALLEL SEGMENT EH SEGMENTS PARALLEL TO THE SAME SEGMENT ARE PARALLEL SEGMENT HG PARALLEL SEGMENT FE SYNTACTIC CONJUGATE QUAD-LATERAL HGFE ASSUMPTION BASED ON DIAGRAM PARALELOGRAM EFGH QUADRILATERAL WITH OPPOSITE SIDES PARALLEL IS A PARALLELOGRAM Figure 2. — Example of use of computer for logical process of proving a plane geometry theorem. be several levels of such goals. The computer examines all these pos- sibilities until a certain sequence of subgoals has been found that proves the theorem. It is necessaiy to keep the number of subgoals at each level as small as possible; otherwise the total number to be investigated could easily be too large to be handled even by large, fast digital computers. For example, if there were 10 subgoals generated for each goal or subgoal for a total of 6 levels, there would be over a million possibilities to consider. The limiting of the number of perti- nent subgoals is done by checking each subgoal to see if it is consistent with the diagram. If it is consistent, it is kept as a possible step in the proof; otherwise it is rejected. In the example of figure 2 the theorem was proved by demonstrating that it was reducible to the definition, "a quadrilateral with opposite sides parallel is a parallelogram." Intermediate steps in the proof used the theorems that "segments parallel to the same segment are parallel" and "segment joining midpoints of the sides of a triangle 298 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1960 is parallel to (its) base." Otherwise, the proof involves the definition of a midpoint and on assumptions based on the diagram. It will be noted that the information must be specified to the com- puter in a degree of detail that may not be required in a human proof of theorems. In this example, the term "precedes DGC" means that points D, G, and C are collinear in that order. This may appear to be obvious, but it is needed for the proof. Similarly, much of what is given as "syntactic symmetries" appears to be "obviously" implied by the diagram. The usual proof of this theorem assumes these sym- metries but does not necessarily consider them as formally as the machine must. This example is a relatively simple one; much more complicated theorems have been proved. Furthermore, the brief description given here does justice neither to the magnitude nor the significance of the work being done in using computers to "prove" as well as compute. Obviously, the ability to prove geometrical or other theorems is not significant in itself ; the important investigation is to show how these significant intellectual endeavors can be performed in terms of the sim- ple operations which a computer can perform. Knowing this, it may be possible to extend these tecliniques to more useful intellectual activities. FUTURE OF COMPUTERS It is apparent that computers are acquiring much faster operating speeds and that their storage capacity is increasing while at the same time their physical size is decreasing. The cost per operation is going down, and it is certain that computers are going to be much more widely used than they are now. Many more thousands of people in the next few years will find that digital computers will play an essen- tial part in their activities. "Wliile computers will be increasingly used for arithmetic problems, it is also to be expected that they Avill find more and more uses of a logical nature. The proving of geometry theorems is only a step in the direction of using computers for nonarithmetic operations. It does illustrate the use of computers in situations in which the pro- gramer cannot possibly anticipate all the possible courses of action. The computer is given very general instiiictions for determining its sequence of operations and will be able to adapt or "learn" as necessary to solve the problem presented to it. This should open new vistas for application of computers, and it has even been suggested that tliis use of computers has significant sociological implications. Digital computers by their nature will also produce other indirect benefits. Lacking a tool that would permit doing a large number of operations to solve a problem, man has characteristically developed techniques using relatively few but necessarily complex operations. DIGITAL COMPUTERS — McCORMICK 299 This is especially true in the fields outside the exact sciences. However, scientists are now engaged in analyzing many operations in simple, fundamental terms suitable for use by computers. This has the de- sirable side result of increasing Imowledge over and above that wliich can be fed to computers. The limited number of operations that computers can perform com- pels all who use them to employ a common means of expression. The computer does not know whether the sequence of instructions which it performs were written by an accountant, linguist, philosopher, librarian, theologian, social scientist, physical scientist, engineer, or mathematician. Furthermore, its operations are independent of the natural language (English, French, or any other) of the person writ- ing the program for the computer. At least at this level the activities in all sciences and of all nationalities are in a sense unified. This is especially interesting in an age when many fields of human endeavor are becoming more and more specialized and the problems of com- municating between disciplines more difficult. BIBLIOGRAPHY BowDEN, B. v., ed. Faster than thought. Pitman Publishing Corp., New York, 1953. Chapin, N. An introduction to automatic digital computers. D. Van Nostrand Co., Inc., Princeton, N.J., 1957. EcKEBT, W. J., and Jones, R. Faster, faster. McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., New York, 1958. Fahnestock, J. D. Computers and how they work. Ziff-Davis Publishing Co., New York, 1959. Gelernter, H., et al. Empirical exploration of the geometry theorem machine. Proc. Western Joint Computer Conference, Assoc. Computing Machinery, New York, 1960. Mandl, M. Fundamentals of digital computers. Prentice-Hall, Inc., Engle- wood Cliffs, N. J., 1958. McCoRMicK, E. M. Digital computer primer. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, 1959. JIcCracken, D. D. Digital computer programming. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1957. Murphy, J. S. Basics of digital computers. John F. Rider Publisher, Inc., New York, 1958. Stibitz. G. R., and Larrtvee, J. A. Mathematics and computers. McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., New York, 1956. Wiener, N. Some moral and technical consequences of automation. Science, May 6, 1960, pp. 1355-1358. Williams, S. B. Digital computing systems. McGraw-Hill Book Publishing Co., Inc., New York, 1959. Navigation — From Canoes to Spaceships^ By Charles S. Draper Professor and Head, Department of Aeronautics and Astronautics Director, Instrumentation Laboratory Massachusetts Institute of Technology [With 4 plates] INTRODUCTION In 1786 John Hyacinth de Magellan of London presented 200 guineas to the American Philosophical Society as a gift, through which special gold medals were to be awarded from time to time. Under the terms of the gift, each of these medals should go "to the author of the best discovery or most useful invention relating to navi- gation, astronomy, or natural philosophy (mere natural history only excepted)." This specification of conditions makes it very probable that the donor intended to honor his lineal ancestor Ferdinando Ma- gellan, who was killed during a Philippine Islands battle in April of 1521, after having navigated across all the unknown longitudes of the world's oceans. This earlier Magellan, the illustrious first circum- navigator of the globe, was a man whose vision, boldness, leadership, steadiness in adversity, and actual achievements give him an miassail- able position as a very great member of the human race. It is a high honor for the author of this paper to be identified in any way with the name of Magellan, and he is deeply grateful to the American Philosophical Society for the 1959 Magellanic Medal. The citation mentions contributions to inertial guidance, a field in which the author has been active for many years as director of the Instrumentation Laboratory at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. In this position, he has been fortunate to have the collaboration of a dedicated and able group of scientists and engineers who must rightfully receive a great share of any credit that may be due for pioneering applica- tions of inertial devices to the problems of navigation. Inertial navigation is properly the subject of primary interest for ^ Reprinted by permission from Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, vol. 104, No. 2, AprU 1960. 301 302 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 19 60 PRIMITIVE MEN MADE LIMITED VOYAGES IN DUGOUT CANOES, USING SELECTED LANDMARKS . FOR GUIDANCE TO ULTIMATE ' • DESTINATION Figure 1. — Visual line-of-sight navigation. this paper, but a brief discussion of guidance in general is needed to bring out an overall picture, with the inertial method given its place as one segment of a generalized pattern. To be complete, this pattern must include the navigational means that have been used or are avail- able for terrestrial, marine, aeronautical, and space vehicles ranging from the dugout canoes of our caveman ancestors to the interplanetary ships that will be built in the near future for explorations of the solar system. Historical coverage and details of particular devices are beyond the scope of this paper, which is concerned only with the basic principles and methods that are used to solve the problems of naviga- tion. Accordingly, references are omitted from the text, but a short bibliography related to gyroscopic devices and inertial navigation is provided for the convenience of those readers who may be interested in pursuing the subject further. PRIMITIVE NAVIGATION "VVlien one of our remote ancestors wished to go on a trip, he selected landmarks within sight and took his guidance from first one and then another, until he reached his destination (fig. 1).^ If night or bad weather prevented him from seeing any landmark, he was forced to stop until conditions improved. Navigation with restrictions of this kind limited voyages to waters near extended shorelines and islands. ' The figures are drawn so as to be self-explanatory ; hence, little detailed discission of the figures appears in the text. NAVIGATION — CANOES TO SPACESHIPS — DRAPER 303 except for a few special cases where boats might be moved by known wind and water currents. This complete dependence on currents or on visible terrestrial objects was relieved many centuries ago by the dis- covery that under proper conditions heavenly bodies could be used to assist travel over the surface of the earth. In effect, the stars were found to act as points in a knowable space located at a great distance from the earth (pi. 1). The sun, the moon, and the planets did not appear to be fixed in this space, but followed paths that reduced their usefulness for the purposes of guidance. On clear nights, the star Polaris showed the direction of north and provided information on latitude by its angle above the horizon. Other stars with known posi- tions in the pattern of the celestial sphere were also used, but celestial navigation remained an incomplete art for many centuries. The prin- cipal reason for this imperfection was the earth's rotation, which made it impossible to determine the angular position of the earth with respect to the stars. Without good information on this position, esti- mates of longitude necessarily remained of low quality. CELESTIAL NAVIGATION The key problem in longitude measurements was that of finding the rotational angle of the earth with respect to a reference position having known relationships to points fixed on the celestial sphere. Astronomical knowledge recorded in star tables and almanacs easily gave angles between lines of sight to celestial objects and the vertical at any terrestrial point, if the earth could be assumed to remain in a particular position. In practice, the earth never fulfilled this assump- tion, but continuously moved with respect to any possible reference position. Because the angular velocity of the earth among the stars was and is effectively constant and well known, an accurate means for indicating sidereal time (time based on rotation of the earth referred to the celestial sphere) would have made it possible to find longitude by fixing the angle of the earth from a selected reference position. The basic problem of timekeeping for navigation was first solved during the 18th century by John Harrison, who received a prize from the British Admiralty for his achievement. The 19th-century de- velopments of instruments and other devices that accompanied and followed Harrison's work on the marine chronometer — improved sex- tants, logarithmic multiplication, almanacs, and other aids — brought the art of celestial navigation by visual observations very close to the high level that it has today. Celestial navigation is basically the art of using the celestial sphere as a reference space in which visible stars provide geometrical points for relating positions in terrestrial space to a system of coordinates outside the earth. These star lines of sight are the directions from 579421—61- 23 304 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1960 J ANGLE BETWEEN L f LOCAL VERTICAL AND LINE OF SIGHT TO STAR / / ^ '"' : LINE OF SIGHT . ' ^..::::::::::::;r TO HORIZON > ALTITUDE OF STAR SEXTANT-ANGLE READING (AFTER VARIOUS CORRECTIONS ARE AP- PLIED) GIVES ALTITUDE OF STAR WITH RESPECT TO HORIZON PLANE. ANGLE BETWEEN LOCAL VERTICAL AND LINE OF SIGHT TO STAR IS 90 DEGREES MINUS THE CORRECTED SEXTANT-ANGLE READING. Figure 2. — Use of the sextant in celestial navigation. which angles to the local vertical are observed at the terrestrial point to be located, by means of instruments like the sextant (fig. 2) . Angle measurements of this kind are useful in navigation only if the posi- tions that the observed stars occupy on the celestial sphere are known and if the instantaneous orientation of a selected meridian fixed to the earth is measured with respect to the celestial sphere. Data on celestial-sphere points are available from the body of knowledge developed in descriptive astronomy and are recorded for the purposes of navigation in star tables and almanacs. The meridian selected as the reference for navigation is arbitrarily taken as the one passing through Greenwich. At any instant, the hour angle of this meridian may be determined with the aid of a chronometer reading, which provides knowledge of the time elapsed since the Greenwich meridian last occupied a reference orientation with respect to the NAVIGATION — CANOES TO SPACESHIPS — DRAPER 305 celestial sphere. The hour angle, star observations, and almanac data are the elements used to find locations on the earth by conventional methods of navigation. The geometrical principles associated with the use of a nonterres- trial reference space for the purposes of navigation have been known and applied for centuries. Many techniques for using these princi- ples, difiering in details from the process that has been described, are possible. This fact is not important for the purposes of this paper, which is primarily concerned with describing the place of inertial methods among other ways of locating points on the earth's surface. It will appear that inertial navigation is geometrically analogous to celestial navigation. The essential difference lies in the use by iner- tial systems of gyroscopically controlled, rigid body members to serve the functions of the celestial sphere as a nonterrestrial reference space. NAVIGATION BY RADIO AND RADAR Navigation by the use of terrestrial landmarks, a very old art, was revolutionized during the first decades of the 20th century by the new science of electronics. This revolution came from applications of radio techniques to maintain radiation links between vehicles and points with known locations on the earth by the use of electromag- netic radiation having wavelengths much longer than those of visi- ble light (fig. 3). Darkness, bad weather, distance, and obstructions that affect visual observations do not interfere with these long- wave- length contacts with landmarks that are radio stations or reflectors. Radio direction fhiders are now conunon equipment for aircraft and marine vessels and serve as basic aids to navigation by giving bearings to known stations. Signals set up in the fashion of the "A" and "N" quadrants that are associated with the radio beams of civil airways have been used for several decades to guide airplanes. Higher accuracy and wider coverage in fixes are possible by applying the FOG-ENSHROUDED ^~^±^ COASTLINE =.^^^ ~ SHIPBORNE DIRECTION-FINDING EQUIPMENT DETECTS PORTION OF RADIO SIGNAL BEING _^ EMITTED FROM SHORE STATION ANDDETERMINES DIRECTION FROM WHICH IT COMES. — BEARINGS ON TWO SHORE STATIONS PROVIDE A POSITION FIX. Figure 3. — Application of radio techniques to terrestrial navigation. 306 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 19 60 DEPARTURE AND DESTINATION ARE KNOWN IN EARTH COORDINATES (LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE). DESIRED TRACK IS ESTABLISHED FROM KNOWLEDGE OF DEPARTURE AND DESTINATION IN EARTH COORDINATES. ACTUAL POSITION OF SHIP CAN BE DETERMINED BY MEANS OF LORAN. LORAN IS A HYPERBOLIC NAVIGATION SYSTEM IN WHICH THE NAVI- GATING CRAFT RECEIVES SYNCHRONIZED PULSE SIGNALS FROM AT LEAST THREE KNOWN POINTS. TIME DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ARRIVAL OF SIGNALS FROM ANY PAIR OF THESE TRANSMITTING STATIONS IS MEASURED AND DEI ERMINES A HYPERBOLA-SHAPED LINE OF POSITION ON A LOKAN CHART. BY MEANS OF ANOTHER PAIR OF STATIONS A SECOND SET OF SIGNALS CAN BE USED TO DETERMINE A SECOND LINE OF POSITION. THE CROSSING OF THE TWO LINES OF POSITION GIVES A POSITION FIX IN LORAN COORDINATES. • LORAN CHART SHOWS LORAN LINES OF POSITION SUPERIMPOSED ON GEOGRAPHIC PLOT. THEREFORE, LOCATION OF PRESENT POSITION IN LORAN COORDINATES GIVES DIRECTLY THE LOCATION IN EARTH COORDINATES. Figure 4. — Navigation by means of loran. principles of loran, and similar radio-navigation systems, in ■wliicli the navigating vehicle receives synchronized pulse signals from at least three transmitting stations (fig. 4). The time difference between the signals received from any two stations determines a hyperbola-shaped line of position on the navigation chart. Use of at least one other transmitting station determines a second such line of position. The crossing of these two lines of position on the navigation chart estab- lishes a highly accurate fix. With this navigation technique, the dif- ficulties that beset visual observations of landmarks are substantially eliminated. Navigation by such radio-navigation nets, which cover wide areas of the earth's surface, is very useful for locating stationary points and slow-moving vehicles, but is not well adapted to situations that involve rapid maneuvers of fast vehicles. Radar, which uses wavelengths shorter than those of the radio- navigation systems just described but longer than tliose of light, gives direct indication of distance from a single landmark. It is an ex- cellent means for navigation by direct-line-of -sight contacts, with the restrictions associated with light substantially eliminated (fig. 5). The landmarks for radar may be ordinary terrain features and arti- ficial objects, such as lighthouses, buoys, or other vehicles. Radar devices usually operate by comparing transmitted and reflected pulses. The time between sending and receiving for a particular pulse gives the distance to the reflecting surface in terms of the velocity of liffht. NAVIGATION — CANOES TO SPACESHIPS — DRAPER 307 USE OF RADAR PROVIDES DIRECT LINE OF SIGHT TO KNOWN LANDMARK AND Rc- SULTS IN BOTH RANGE AND BEARING INFORMATION Figure 5. — Navi^ration bv use of raJar. An alternative method of using wavelengtlis of the radar spectrum for the purposes of navigation is to transmit continuous waves instead of pulses. This technique is particularly useful when the transmit- ter and reflecting surfaces are moving so rapidly v/ith respect to each other that a measurable shift in frequency between reflected and transmitted waves exists. This frequency sliift is a manifestation of the well-understood Doppler effect and is the basis for a number of radiation-contact guidance equipments that are classed as Doppler systems. It is fair to state that toward the middle of the '20th century, radio and radar methods had substantially eliminated the difficulties that attend the use of visual contacts for the purposes of navigation by terrestrial landmarks. A number of other benefits had also ap- peared when visible light was replaced by longer wavelengths for navigational purposes : direct range and velocity measurements were available, working distances were greatly extended, direct-line-of- sight restrictions were removed, and complete automation of equip- ment became feasible. By about 1950, developments of equipment and methods had substantially exhausted the possibilities of improv- ing navigation by terrestrial and celestial references. Improve- ments in details will always occur, but it is unlikely that these fields will see revolutionary changes in the future. MODERN PROBLEMS IN NAVIGATION All the advances in methods, theory, tables, instruments, and tech- niques that appeared during the course of several thousand years to perfect the art of navigation combined to solve the same problem that confronted the first caveman navigator. This problem was and still is that of finding position of the earth from information provided by 308 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1960 time and by radiation contacts with objects having known locations in terrestrial space or celestial space. Navigation progressed with the perfection of chronometers and other instruments, and with improve- ments in the means for sensing radiation-contact information, until at the present time a state of development exists for these elements that approximates their ultimate possibilities. It now remains for new methods to overcome the problems in navigation that began to emerge during the last half of the fifth decade of our century. These prob- lems, which are not solvable by radiation-contact methods, originated largely from needs associated with modern military operations and flights by vehicles moving in the emptiness of space outside the earth's atmosphere, although civilian applications will surely become impor- tant in the future. The new difficulties in navigation appear because the vehicles involved must operate in situations where it is undesirable or impossible to maintain radiation contacts of any kind with outside points. Bombers flying to attack targets deep within well-defended enemy territory will surely not have an environment of cooperative ground stations and can expect the enemy to take all possible measures for interfering with the operation of such radiation-contact equipments as radios and radars. Submarines designed for the underwater launch- ing of ballistic missiles must have an accurate and continuous knowl- edge of position during long periods of submerged cruising near enemy shores. Ballistic missiles, which to be effective must be de- signed for simultaneous launching in salvos of considerable numbers, need to have self-contained guidance systems in order to keep ground installations within feasible limits of size and cost. Satellites, lunar craft, and interplanetary vehicles need navigational equipment de- signed to make the most effective use of the available weiglit and vol- ume capacity, so that there are strong reasons for working out designs based on the best possible combinations of radiation-contact com- ponents and inertial elements. These examples serve to illustrate the nature of the new require- ments on navigation equipment that have developed during the past 10 years. These requirements reduce to the necessity for navigation systems capable of giving high-quality performance during periods that include a considerable number of hours without radiation contacts. In terms of the basic geometry involved, this means that navigation equipment must include a completely self-contained means for providing geometrical references (fig. 6) . Inertial principles applied through the medium of gyroscopic action (see bibliography) make it possible to realize geometrical reference members, in the form of rigid bodies, that are capable of serving the functions of celestial space in navigation. To be satisfactory, these reference members must hold initially established orientations with NAVIGATION — CANOES TO SPACESHIPS — DRAPER 309 WHEN DEPARTURE AND DESTINATION ARE BEYOND I.INE-OF-SIGHT CONTACT AMD DIRECT RADIATION CONNECTION IS NOT POSSIBLE, INERTIAL REFERENCE COORDINATES MAY BE USED FOR GUIDANCE INERTIAL-REFERENCE- PACKAGE AXIS OF ROTATION; SET PARALLEL TO EARTH'S POLAR AXIS NOTE: FOR THE SAKE OF CLARITY, THE SUPPORTING GIMBALS AND ASSOCIATED DRIVES ARE NOT SHOWN IN THE DIAGRAM. EARTH REFERENCE GIMBAL (rotated obout the direction of the eorfh's axis - dve to action of the time drive and supporting gimbol servos — to remain para lel to the plane of a meridian as the earth rotates) INERTIAL REFERENCE PACKAGE INERTIAL-REFERENCE-PACKAGE ORIENTATION IS INITIALLY ACCURATELY ESTABLISHED WITH RESPECT TO INERTIAL SPACE, THAT IS, WITH RESPECT TO CELESTIAL SPACE (FOR THE PURPOSESOF PRACTICAL GUIDANCE, INERTIAL SPACE AND CELESTIAL SPACE ARE EFFECTIVELY IDENTICAL). THIS MAY INVOLVE THE USE OF DEVICES NOT INCLUDED IN THE INERTIAL GUIDANCE EQUIPMENT. HIGH-PERFORMANCE INERTIAL-REFERENCE GYRO UNITS (GYRO UNITS WITH LOW DRIFT RATES) SUPPLYING CORRECTION SIGNALS FOR SERVO-DRIVEN GIMBALS OPERATE TO AC- CURATELY HOLD THE INERTIAL-REFERENCE-PACKAGE ORIENTATION WITH RESPECT TO INERTIAL SPACE DURING THE PERIOD GUIDANCE IS REQUIRED. A SPECIFIC FORCE RECEIVER SYSTEM WITH SCHULER TUNING MAY BE USED TO ACCURATE- LY INDICATE THE VERTICAL IN MOVING VEHICLES. MEASUREMENT OF THE ANGLES BETWEEN THE VERTICAL AND A MEMBER FIXED WITH THE PROPER ORIENTATION TO THE EARTH REFERENCE GIMBAL GIVES PRESENT POSITION OF THE VEHICLE ON THE EARTH. Figure 6. — Guidance by substitution of inertial reference coordinates for celestial coordinates. high accuracy under conditions of operation. The essential features of systems based on reference members of this kind are discussed in the sections that follow. SELF-CONTAINED GEOMETRICAL REFERENCES FOR NAVIGATION BY APPLICATION OF GYROSCOPIC PRINCIPLES Gyroscopic effects are mainly associated with the mechanical be- havior of a balanced, symmetrical rotor spinning rapidly about its 310 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 196 axis of circular symmetry and mounted in gimbals, or carried by some other means, that allow it to have rotational freedom about directions at right angles to its spin axis. The action of such a gyroscope (a name applied by Foucault to devices with the features just described) depends on Newton's law of motion, wliich states that a particle of mass acted on by a force has a rate of change of its velocity vector in the direction of the applied force. The magnitude of this rate of change is directly proportional to the magnitude of the force and is inversely proportional to the moving mass. Any space in which Newton's law of motion applies is by definition an inertial space. The possibility of inertial navigation depends on the fact that matter used for equipment parts responds to applied forces by motions with respect to an inertial space that is essentially identical with the space determined by the fixed stars. In a moving, rigid body, such as a gyroscopic rotor, interactions among individual particles combine to give the rotor an angular mo- mentum that is equal to the product of the moment of inertia about the spin axis and the angular velocity of spin. The consequence of Newton's law of motion as far as it pertains to a gyroscopic rotor is that a torque applied to the rotor about any axis at right angles to the spin axis causes the spin axis to rotate toward alinement with the torque axis. The angular velocity associated with this rotation, which is called precession, is proportional to tlie magnitude of the applied torque and is inversely proportional to the magnitude of the rotor angular momentmn. When the torque applied to a gyroscopic rotor is zero, the angular velocity of precession is zero, and the spin axis perfectly holds its existing orientation with respect to inertial space. For the purposes of navigation, the important fact is that the space in which a torque- free gyroscopic rotor holds its spin axis in a fixed direction is identical with the celestial space associated with the fixed stars. This means that a geometrical reference member controlled by two or three gyro- scopic rotors designed for substantially torque-free operation will hold its orientation almost perfectly with respect to celestial space. Thus, a mechanical member inside a navigation system can supply all the necessary geometrical-reference information, without the need for external radiation contacts of any kind. In addition to this feature, wliich supplies the essential need of self- contained navigation equipment, gj-roscopic inertial members are more convenient for reference purposes than celestial space, which must be used through the medium of a few nonsystematically located fixed stars. This convenience stems from the fact that torque-free gyro- scopic rotors do not tend to move toward any preferred direction, but hold any orientation they may have when applied torques are reduced Smithsonian Report, 1960 Draper Plate l O Smithsonian Report. 1960 — Draper Plate 2 CONDITIONS AT A GIVEN FLIGHT POSITION CONDITIONS AT START OF FLIGHT AXIS EARTH-ROTATION- CORRECTION CLOCK DIAL PENDULUM V CENTER OF EARTH ® GYRO HOLDS AXIS DIRECTION CONSTANT WITH RESPECT TO FIXED STARS, THAT IS, WITH RESPECT TO AN INERTIAL REFERENCE SPACE. (2) DIAL ROTATION WITH SIDEREAL TIME CORRECTS FOP EARTH ROTATION TO GIVE AN EARTH REFERENCE SPACE. ® DIRECTION OF GRAVITY AT START OF FLIGHT, WITH RESPECT TO THE EARTH REFERENCE SPACE. DIRECTION OF GRAVITY AT FLIGHT POSITION REPRESENTED BY DOTTED LINES, WITH RE- SPECT TO THE EARTH REFERENCE SPACE. ® INDICATED ANGLE OF TRAVEL IS PROVIDED BY ANGULAR DISPLACEMENT, IN EARTH REF- ERENCE SPACE, OF DIRECTION OF GRAVITY WITH RESPECT TO ITS POSITION AT THE START OF THE FLIGHT. Ineriial system siniplilicd lo illustrate elements of navigation for vehicles moving at sub- stantially constant altitude. Smithsonian Report. 1960 Draper PLATE 3 SPECIFIC FORCE RECEIVER (T) SEISMIC MASS @ SPRING GIMBAL SYSTEM (J) GYRO HOLDS THE ^ DIRECTION OF ITS AXIS FIXED AMONG THE STARS (5) BASE IN PRACTICE IS ATTACHED TO GUIDED VEHICLE GYRO ROTOR '6') DEFLECTION OF ' MASS 7) ANGULAR MOTION OF BASE 8) SPECIFIC-FORCE COMPONENT ALONG GYRO AXIS (?) TOTAL SPECIFIC FORCE ACTING ON BASE NOTE: TO SIMPLIFY DIAGRAM, ONLY SINGLE-DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM OPERATION IS SHOWN. 1. Two-dcgree-of-freedom ,cyro atid single-degree-of-freedom specific force receiver illus- trating elements of inertial guidance for vehicles in arbitrary motion with respect, to the earth. GYRO AND SPECIFIC FORCE RECEIVER PACKAGE (multiple units of each kind to operate in three directions) 2. Inertial u'uidance for a ballistic missile. Smithsonian Report. I960 — Draper Plate 4 NAVIGATION — CANOES TO SPACESHIPS — DRAPER 311 to zero. Therefore, the orientation chosen for any given situation may be the one that allows the simplest or most convenient configura- tion of the required mechanism. For example, causing one of the support axes of the gyroscopic package to operate in parallelism with the earth's axis of rotation makes it possible for a simple sidereal clock drive (such as represented in fig. 6) to compensate for the rotation of the earth. The orientation of the reference member remains fixed with respect to inertial space about this polar axis, so that the first support gimbal outside of the sidereal time drive remains parallel to some meridian on the earth. By mechanical adjustments, this artificial meridian may be alined -with any selected earth meridian. The com- bination of this artificial meridian inside the navigation equipment and the artificially established direction of the earth's polar axis provides an adjustable earth reference space that is derived from an adjustable inertial reference space and a time drive. Positions on the earth are fixed by determining the direction of the local gravitational vector with respect to this mechanically established earth reference space (pi. 2).^ The inertial-system configuration just described was chosen be- cause of its simplicity for the purposes of explanation. Various other configurations are possible. For example, the gyro units of the iner- tial reference member may bo designed to receive contiimous torque inputs that cause the member to change its orientation with respect to inertial space so that it indicates the direction of the local vertical as the system moves over the earth's surface. In a system of this kind, changes in position with respect to the earth are indicated by integrations of torque-controlling signals to calibrated gyro units. Each signal corresponds to an angular velocity component of the reference member with respect to inertial space, and one integration gives the associated angular displacement. Correction of this dis- placement for rotation of the earth by a time signal and multiplica- tion by the radius of the earth gives a component of distance traveled over the earth's surface. The same procedure applied to the other components of inertial-reference-member rotation gives the corre- sponding components of travel. Combining all the travel components gives the indicated resultant movement of an inertial navigation sys- tem over the earth. Relating this indicated movement to the point of departure gives the indicated position of the vehicle carrying the navigation equipment at any instant. Another configuration of inertial navigation equipment places the inertial reference member in an arbitrary orientation and employs computers to produce information on indicated position. This ar- rangement is often used for the guidance of ballistic missiles. 579421—61 24 312 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1960 PRACTICAL ASPECTS OF INERTIAL REFERENCES In practice, inertial references involve many factors that cannot be mentioned in this paper because of space limitations. Some of these factors are associated with design details, wliile others are com- mon to all systems. One of these common factors is the necessity for establishing the desired inertial-reference-member orientation prior to any period of use for the system containing the member. This orientation must be based on inputs generated by means outside the gyro miits of the reference member and supplied to these units as angular-velocity conmiand signals that become zero when the proper orientation is reached. For example, an optical system using a light- sensitive cell tracker pointed toward Polaris and a servomechanism arrangement can be used to drive an axis of the inertial reference member toward alinement with the earth's axis of rotation. Simi- larly, pendulum signals can be used for properly setting the reference member in a selected angular position about the polar axis. Any actual gyro unit is imperfect in the sense that its rotor can never be completely torque- free, with the result that the spin axis does not hold its direction perfectly with respect to inertial space. How- ever, by proper design and construction, it is possible to make the re- sultant of undesired torque components very small and to keep the uncertainty parts of these components at still lower levels. Drift rates having an order of magnitude of one one-thousandth of earth's rate (earth's rate is 15° per hour) can now be expected from commer- cially available gyro units. For high performance, the rotors of these units cannot be used directly to generate motion-resisting torques sufficient to control heavy supporting gimbals. However, teclmiques are available that make it feasible for the member carrying the spin- axis bearings of the rotor to operate under conditions of substantially complete freedom from interfering torque components. In units that take advantage of this possibility, deflections of the case of the unit with respect to the rotor do not provide heavy torque but are used only for the generation of control signals, a service that imposes virtually zero torque loads. By using these signals as command inputs to amplifiers controlling the servomotors that drive the sup- porting gimbals, the effects of friction and other disturbing torques may be overcome so completely that the structure carrying the gyro units remains accurately in an orientation determined by the gyro spin axes. SPECIFIC-FORCERECEIVER SYSTEMS FOR INDICATIONS OF THE VERTICAL AND THE DISTANCE TRAVELED Inertial navigation systems designed to operate on or near the earth's surface must have some provision for indicating the direction NAVIGATION — CANOES TO SPACESHIPS — DRAPER 313 of the local vertical. This direction gives indicated position through its orientation with respect to the artificially established earth co- ordinate reference of the system. On a platform fixed to the earth, the problem of indicating the vertical is easily solved by means of a simple pendulum. On a moving platform subjected to horizontal accelerations, a simple pendulum is no longer satisfactory, because of interfering eilects introduced by these accelerations. This interfer- ence is unavoidable because, by Einstein's principle of equivalence, the mass of any body in its response to a gravitational field is identical with the mass associated with inertia-reaction effects. Thus a pendu- lum bob hanging along the vertical under gravity is deflected when its point of support is given any horizontal acceleration. Under the accel- erations usually experienced by moving vehicles, a simple pendulmn may well have erratic deflections of several degrees. Disturbances of this magnitude are completely unacceptable for the purposes of navi- gation where the required maximum accuracy magnitude is of the order of 1 mile. Wlien it is remembered that on the earth's surface 1 minute of arc between local-vertical directions corresponds to a dis- tance of 1 nautical mile, the uselessness of simple pendulum arrange- ments for navigation is apparent. Errors in local- vertical indications under conditions of erratic ac- celeration of a moving vehicle may be reduced to satisfactory limits by designing the indicating system so that it has a proper dynamic behavior. The required characteristic is that of responding to a hori- zontal linear acceleration component by an angular acceleration about a horizontal axis at right angles to the linear acceleration. Wlien the angular acceleration has a magnitude equal to the linear horizontal acceleration divided by the radius from the center of the earth to the moving platform, vertical indications change in step with variations in position. A system with perfonnance of this kind is said to have Schuler tuning ; this is in recognition of Professor Schuler, who first published the theory of such arrangements. "When Schuler tuning is used, indications of the vertical remain accurate in the presence of arbitrary horizontal accelerations. On the surface of the earth, Schuler tuning corresponds to a period of about 84 minutes. Any practical system possessing the features suggested in plate 2 would have to use a pendulum with this characteristic. Because of the small distance between the pivot and the center of gravity that would be required in a simple physical pendulum with Schuler tuning, a pendulum of this kind is not physically feasible. The practical solution for this problem is to use an equivalent pen- dulum system based on a servodriven gimbal-supported platform carrying sensing elements that respond to gravity and acceleration. Amplifiers in the feedback loops are designed so that electronic cir- 314 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1960 cuits act to introduce the required dynamic performance. By varia- tion of circuit parameters, it is possible to adjust both the period and the damping so tliat optimimi resuks are achieved under operating conditions. The sensing components required for Schuler-tmied equivalent pen- dulum sj^stems are arrangements in which gravitational and inertia- reaction forces acting on a seismic mass (a body designed to act as the receiving element of a sensor) cause deflection against some restrain- ing means in a way that generates an output signal representing the resultant input force. This resultant is made up of the force acting to move the seismic element in the direction of the gravity field and the inertia-reaction effects that tend to cause the seismic element to lag behind the linear acceleration of the sensing miit. It is con- venient to consider gravity and inertia-reaction effects as combining to form the specific force, which is the resultant force per unit mass acting on a body due to gravity and acceleration. A simple pendulum is a specific- force receiver in which the suspended mass tends to aline itself with the direction of the specific-force input vector. Many other kinds of specific- force receivers are in use in which the output signal represents the specific-force component acting along an input axis that has a fixed direction with raspect to the case of the sensing component. Devices of this kind appear as essential elements in all inertial navigation systems. INERTIAL NAVIGATION SYSTEMS FOR VEHICLES MOVING AT SUBSTANTIALLY CONSTANT ALTITUDE Navigation systems used in vehicles supported by ground, air, or water normally move in surfaces that are substantially spherical about the center of the earth, so that the specific-force input for specific- force receivers is practically identical with gravity. This means that it is feasible to indicate the direction of gravity by means of an equiva- lent pendulum system with Schuler tuning. Inertial equipments for use in ground vehicles, aircraft, surface ships, and submarines all take advantage of this fact by basing their indications of vehicle location on the orientation of an indicated vertical member with respect to an earth reference member positioned by a gyroscopic inertial reference system and sidereal time. In some cases, the inertial reference mem- ber holds its physical orientation among the stars, while in other cases the member moves, and its rate of change of orientation with respect to inertial space acts as the input for a computer whose output is navigational information. Many designs are possible for inertial systems based on indications of the local vertical by an equivalent pendulum with Schuler tuning. Several different equipments have been constructed by various com- NAVIGATION — CANOES TO SPACESHIPS — DRAPER 315 mercial organizations and tested far enough to prove tlie feasibility of inertial navigation, but it is to be expected that several years of effort will have to pass before linal decisions as to the best type of equipment can be made. INERTIAL GUIDANCE SYSTEMS FOR BALLISTIC MISSILES AND SATELLITES Ballistic missiles are subjected to high accelerations for short pe- riods of high thrust during the phase of boosting through the atmos- phere and then coast in free fall until they reenter the air before strik- ing target areas. In this situation, it is not feasible to base guidance on indications of the local vertical. During the boost phase, the inputs for specific- force receivers are greatly different from gravity, both in direction and in magnitude. During the coasting phase, free fall reduces the net specific force to zero, so there are effectively no inputs for specific-force receivers. Reentry and the terminal phase are again subject to accelerations due to air resistance that cause the specific force available as the input for guidance equipment to be greatly different from gravity. These facts combine to prevent systems that operate by indicating the local direction of gravity from being useful in equipment for guiding ballistic missiles. Some other mode of operation must therefore be used to meet the operating requirements of such equipment. Inertial guidance for ballistic missiles is achieved by eliminating terrestrial-space reference equipment and solving the guidance prob- lem by means of specific-force receivers fixed in an artificially oriented space that is associated with a gyroscopic reference number (pi. 3, fig. 1). To mechanize this arrangement, a rigid body member supported by a servodriven gimbal system carries the necessary gyro units and, in addition, serves as the momiting for a set of three single-degree-of- freedom specific-force receivers with their input axes set at right angles to each other (pi. 3, fig. 2) . With this configuration, the total specific force acting on the gyro-oriented reference member is sensed in three components in a special set of coordinates having known geo- metrical relationships to terrestrial space and to celestial space. Sig- nals representing these components are generated by the specific-force sensors and transmitted to a computer. This computer, acting on these inputs and on information stored in its memory banks, works out the instantaneous location of the missile under guidance, compares this location with the desired location on the proper path, and gen- erates command signals for correcting the direction of the missile. These command signals are received by the missile control system, which changes the orientation of the thrust vector with respect to the missile so that the necessary changes in the missile path are made. Ballistic-missile guidance is carried out in artificially established inertial-space coordinates, with the target considered as a moving 316 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1960 point because of the earth's rotation. For the purposes of tliis guid- ance method, gravity is regarded as merely one component of the resultant specific force, Avithout any particular attention to its direc- tion as it is related to location on the earth. Time is also an input to the system, but it is one of several factors for the computer, rather than the means for determining the orientation of the earth. Satellites may be put into orbit by inertial guidance, but inertial equipment is not essential but may be helpful during long periods of coasting flight. Very probably, inertial devices will be useful in sensing angular- velocity inputs for control purposes. It is also likely that gyroscopic stabilization w^ill be utilized to assist radiation- contact devices carried by satellites in tracking the earth and other celestial bodies. INTERPLANETARY GUIDANCE Interplanetary vehicles must operate for long periods of time with only tenuous radiation contacts wdth either their points of departure or their destinations. During the midcourse phases of long inter- planetary trips, it may be desirable for the guided vehicle and its equipment to be able to operate without outside assistance from manned installations. Conditions will be close to ideal for radiation contacts with celestial bodies, and techniques are well developed for acquiring and tracking sources of optical wavelengths. Data from the operation of optical trackers, combined with accurate time from devices based on the natural-frequency vibrations of atoms or elastic bodies and with almanac data stored in digital computer memories, provide all the information needed for the accurate navigation of space vehicles. In effect, celestial-space coordinates are used for this purpose, with locations of the guided vehicle determined from the angular relation- ships among lines of sight to the sun, the stars, the observable planets, and satellites such as the moon. These lines of sight can be automat- ically sought out by optical trackers and may be maintained either by continuous tracking or by the use of gyroscopically controlled refer- ence members with their orientations set from radiation-contact information. For example, the process of navigation might start by acquiring and maintaining the line of sight from the vehicle to the sun by means of a heliotracker (pi. 4). The second step would be searching for a se- lected star over a conical surface about the heliocentric line by means of a star tracker whose angle setting is based on an accurate indication of time and data stored in the memory of a computer. The angle meas- ured between the lines of sight to the sun and this star establishes in celestial coordinates one of the cones of position shown in plate 4. This process is repeated with a second star. Then the angle between NAVIGATION — CANOES TO SPACESHIPS — DRAPER 317 the sun line of sight and a planet line of sight is used to determine the location of the vehicle along the line of intersection of the two cones. CONCLUSION Navigation has been discussed in general terms, with emphasis on the geometrical aspects of the problems involved. Radiation contacts with terrestrial and celestial points provide means for navigation under ordinary circumstances. In the special situations that arise when radiation contacts are not feasible, inertial methods are avail- able. Practical applications of these methods are too new for details of equipments to be settled, but it is certain that navigation of the future will employ many different arrangements, ranging from all- radiation-contact systems to all-inertial systems with various compro- mise arrangements in between. We can look forward with confidence to rapid and interesting developments in the old art of navigation. REFERENCES Draper, C. S. 1958. Self-contained guidance systems. Inst. Radio Eng., Trans. Military Electronics, MIL, vol. 2, No. 1. Draper, C. S., and Woodbury, R. B. 1946. Geometrical stabilization based on servodriven gimbals and integrating gyro units. Paper presented at the AGARD Symposium, Venice, Italy ; published by the Instrumentation Lab., Massachusetts Inst. Techn., Cambridge, Mass. Draper, C. S. : Wrigley, W. ; and Grohe, L. R. 1955. The floating integrating gyro and its application to geometrical stabili- zation problems on moving bases. Inst. Aeron. Sci., S.M.F. Fund Paper No. FF-13, New York. Draper, C. S. ; Wrigley, W. ; and Woodbury, R. B. 1958. Principles of inertial guidance. Paper presented at the 1st Int. Congr. Aeronautical Scl., Madrid, Spain ; published by the Pergamou Press, London, England. Rawlings, a. L. 1944. The theory of the gyroscopic compass and its deviations. New York. Sciiuler, M. 1923. Die Storung von Pendul- und Kreiselapparaten durch die Beschleuni- gung der Fahrzeuges. Phys. Zeitschr., vol. 24. Wrigley, W. 1941. An investigation of methods available for indicating the direction of the vertical from moving bases. Sc.D. thesis, Massachusetts Inst. Techn., Cambridge, Mass. 1950. Schuler tuning characteristics in navigational instruments. Naviga- tion, Journ. Inst. Navigation, vol. 2, No. 8. Wrigley, W. ; Houston, F. E. ; and Whitman, II. R. 1958. Indication of the vertical from moving bases. Inst. Radio Eng., Trans. Aeron. and Navig. Electronics, A.N.E., vol. 5, No. 4. Wrigi^y, W. ; Woodbury, R. B. ; and Hovorka, J. 1957. Inertial guidance. Inst. Aeron. Sci., S.M.F. Fund Paper No. FF-16, New York. Photography of the Ocean Floor* By A. S. Laughton National Institute of Oceanography Surrey, England [With 9 plates] It was inevitable tliat, once the photographic method of recording pictures had become established, its use as a means of reproducing underwater scenes and the life of the sea should have been considered. The first serious efforts to take underwater photographs were made by Boutan in 1893, w^orking in tlie clear waters of the Mediterranean off the coast of France. Although his only successful photographs were made by a diver-operated camera, he nevertheless foresaw the value of an automatic camera which could be lowered to the sea floor in places inaccessible to a diver. His failure in this field w^as due to the lack of suitable illumination and to the primitive nature of the apparatus then available. Surprisingly enough, automatic underwater photography was not followed up until nearly 50 years later, although diver-operated cam- eras taking botli still and cine film had been extensively developed. In 1940, M. Ewing, A. Vine, and J. L. Worzel [1] ^ successfully took photographs of the sea floor with a fully automatic camera. Under the stimulus of wartime needs, photography of the sea floor, especially of wrecks, and of sea-floor conditions for the purpose of sound propa- gation studies, became an established technique. After the war, it was quickly realized that this was a technique tliat could be used to investigate the gi-eat ocean depths and to observe the abyssal fauna and geology in situ. Following the American lead, many laboratories throughout the world have developed their own deep-sea cameras and have used them for a great variety of purposes. CAMERA DESIGN Fortunately for underw^ater photography, the wavelength for which the attenuation of litrht through water is a minimum lies in the middle 1 Reprinted l).v permission from Endeavour, vol. 18, No. 72, October 1950. 2 Numbers in braclsets refer to list of references at end of article. 319 320 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1960 of the visual range. In the deep sea we find that water has great clarity owing to the absence of suspended matter and that for ranges up to 20 feet or so no loss of definition of the image occurs. Thus a conventional camera viewing through a plain glass window with suit- able illumination will give a good picture. There is, however, one optical problem that arises if high-resolution, wide-angle photographs are required. The path of light from water into air is refracted at an oblique interface, the refraction being a function of the wave- length. Hence, the angular field of view of the lens is reduced and, unless monochromatic light is used, the image off the axis is not sharp. The first effect is not important unless maximum coverage is required. The second effect can be corrected by placing in front of the camera a suitable lens that will introduce an equal amount of chromatic aber- ration in the opposite sense. In the shallow water around tlie coasts and on the continental slope, the turbidity of the water is an important limiting factor. In many places, especially in harbors and river mouths where photography has important practical applications, the visibility is reduced to a foot or less, and if photographs are required, a means has to be found of displacing the turbid water in the object field with clear water. This is a difficult practical problem, and photography in shallow water is, therefore, of only limited use. The practical design of a deep-sea camera can best be illustrated with reference to the one designed and built at the National Institute of Oceanography (England) [2]. Tlie camera consists of three basic units, the photographic unit, the flashlight unit, and the acoustic trans- mitter or "pinger" unit. Each of these has its own watertight casing and its own power supplies. The watertight cases are required to with- stand external pressures up to 10,000 Ib./in.^ The simplest cases for the purpose are cylindrical, and, in order to keep the overall weight to a minimum, an internal diameter of 3 inches was chosen. The cases are of light alloy having a wall thickness of three-fourths of an inch and being sealed throughout by 0-ring seals. The window for the camera is made of Perspex in the form of a truncated cone 11^4 inches thick, in a conical seating. The photographic unit comprises a lens and shutter, 15 feet of 35- mm. film enabling a series of up to 100 pictures to be taken, and a motor and gearbox, driven by torch batteries, to move the film auto- matically after each exposure. This unit is shown in plate 1, figure 1. The electronic flasli unit is of conventional design working from dry batteries and generates 100-joule flashes. The pinger unit, which is triggered when a photograph is taken, transmits signals through the water to the operator on the surface telling him that the camera has reached the bottom. It is housed in one of the tubes forming the PHOTOGRAPHY OF OCEAN FLOOR — LAUGHTON 321 framework. Some such form of indicator is an important part of any equipment which is required to be lowered to the bottom of the deep sea, since it is impossible, in the presence of the additional tension due to up to 3 miles of wire hanging in the water, and the variations in tension due to the rolling and pitching of the ship, to feel the change in tension on the wire when the camera reaches the bottom. The pinger normally emits signals at a slow rate while the camera is in midwater, but when it touches bottom, the rate is increased. The camera is triggered by a weight, combined with a small sampler, that is suspended below the camera. ^Vlien this touches bottom, the flash, synchronized with the shutter opening, is triggered, the pinger signals the surface, and the film is moved to the next frame. The operator can immediately raise the wire several fathoms so that the camera itself never touches bottom. After a minute or so another pic- ture can be taken and the process repeated. A series of pictures can thus be taken while the ship drifts. In this way a pliotogi*aphic profile can be made of such deep-sea features as seamounts or the edges of abyssal plains. Any standard black-and-white or color film can be used, and, if desired, stereoscopic pictures can be taken by using two separate photographic units. The underwater camera is shown in use on R.R.S. Discovery II in plate 1, figure 2. THE RESULTS OF PHOTOGRAPHIC EXPLORATION During the past 3 years many hundreds of photographs of the sea floor, at depths varying from a few fathoms to nearly 3,000 fathoms, have been taken hj workers at the National Institute of Oceanography. The photographs have an immediate interest in revealing for the first time a part of the earth's crust never before seen by man but their full scientific value cannot be realized unless they are related to the broader environment in which they are taken. Thus they should be taken in conjunction with a topographic survey of the area and with system- atic sampling of the bottom by such means as coring and dredging, so that the details revealed in the photographs can be interpreted in terms of specimens that can be examined at close quarters. This, how- ever, is a comisel of perfection, and there is seldom time for all the necessary data to be acquired. In reviewing the results of the photographic program to date it is convenient, first, to consider the photographs in relation to the dif- ferent regions and features of sea-floor topography and, second, to illustrate various topics of especial interest that have emerged from a study of the photographs. In some instances, color photographs are used to illustrate various points, since these give a truer representa- tion of the bottom. 322 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 19 60 REGIONAL CLASSIFICATION The nearest and most accessible region of the sea floor is that of the Continental Shelf, where the water depth seldom exceeds 100 fathoms. The coastal part of the shelf has been frequently photo- graphed by divers and so will not be considered further here. It is difficult to generalize about the nature of the bottom on the shelf, since there is as much variety here as there is in the geology of the land. Apart from rocky outcrops and beds of seaweed in the shallower water, a lot of the shelf off the coast of Europe consists of sand, shells, gravel, and mud. The presence of abundant mollusks and other large shells and of coarse gravel is typical of shallow-water shelf deposits. Frequently, one finds the sand patterned by ripplemarks, the product of the strong tidal streams and currents around the continents. As we proceed toward the deep ocean, we come to the continental slope which begins quite suddenly, the depth increasing to 2,000 fath- oms or more in 20 miles. The slopes are often cut with deep canyons carrying the shallow-water sediments out to the deep sea. Apart from these canyons, the slope is a region of deposition of the fine silt and clay material that has been carried out from the coast. Photo- graphs show a smooth, featureless bottom suggesting fairly rapid sedimentation. In deep water, the bottom of the great ocean basins can be divided phj^siographically into several regions. Apart from seamounts, ocean trenches, and mountain ranges, the bottom is more or less completely covered with a blanket of sediment many hundreds of feet thick. Some areas reflect the buried topography in an midulating bottom, and others have an extraordinary flatness associated with sedimentation by turbidity currents. These are currents of water containing sedi- ment in turbulent suspensions that can flow along gentle gradients on the sea floor for many hundreds of miles. At close quarters, how- ever, both the abyssal plains and the undulating bottom are very similar. The ooze is soft enough for extensive reworking by bottom- living organisms which leave tracks, burrows, mounds, and other evi- dence of their existence. In some cases there are indications of the originator of these features, such as the impression of a five-armed star on the top of many of the small humps, but more often one is left to guess when and how they were made. Occasionally, one is lucky enough to see a sea cucumber or a brittlestar crawling along the bottom, or some tube worms or a sponge sticking out of the ooze, but the density of life in abyssal depths is very low. Typical photo- graphs of this region are shown in plate 2, figures 1 and 2, and plate 7, figure 1. The great mid-Atlantic ridge divides the Atlantic Ocean into east- ern and western basins. This vast chain of mountains has an obscure PHOTOGRAPHY OF OCEAN FLOOR — LAUGHTON 323 origin, and muck work 1ms been done to elucidate its structure but without any conclusive results. Photography has shown that its rocky peaks are areas of extremely low sedimentation and have been subject to recent and violent upheaval. Plate 3, figure 1, shows steep slopes and freshly cleaved rocks resembling the screes found on land. Other photographs have shown basins of sediment covered with patches of shinglelike material that may in fact be colonies of a deep- sea shellfish. On the whole the rocky peaks appear poor in sessile fauna, a fact consistent with the idea of a geologically recent disturbance. By far the most interesting and varied collection of sea-bottom photographs has been taken on the volcanic seamounts that rise out of the deep basins. In general the greater the depth, the less dense is the f aunal population. The attraction of a seamount to the abyssal fauna is doubtless partly related to its geological formation. There are a great many exposed rocks and boulders in varying states of fracture; there are sands and oozes in great variety. These offer to the famia a variety of footholds and, to fishes, shelter in which to hide from their foes. Possibly nutrients are concentrated in the water in these regions by local up welling due to obstruction of the waterflow and by the solution of minerals from the rocks themselves. Examples are shown of the continuous type of submarine lava flow, of the bedrock, of broken boulders and shingle, and of the current- swept sand with ripplemarks. Often it appears that the fauna of one seamount differs from that of another and that where in one place for instance one finds predominantly crinoids, in another there may be sponges. However, this differentiation may be only the result of inadequate sampling techniques, and until more pictures are taken it cannot be confirmed. Photographs taken on seamounts are illustrated in plate 3, figure 2, plates 4, 5, and 6, plate 7, figure 2, plate 8, and plate 9, figure 1. Photogi-aphs w^ere taken of one bank of especial interest off Cape Finisterre. Galicia Bank, which is divided from the Continental Shelf by a depth of 1,500 fathoms, has a structure that may be related more nearly to that of the continent than to that of the ocean floor. Rocks dredged from it are of two distinct types; limestones and a col- lection of dark metamorphic rocks. The jihotographs strongly sug- gest that the limestone is locally derived, wdiereas the metamorphic rocks are erratic and have possibly been carried by icebergs from the north. (PI. 9, fig. 2.) SPECIAL PROBLEMS The geological interpretation of rocks seen in bottom photograplis is extremely difficult unless hand specimens can be examined. How- 324 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1960 ever, some very interesting features of deep-sea geology have been re- vealed. In particular, photographs have indicated the distribution and the environment of the rocks. In the Pacific Ocean, millions of tons of potential manganese ore have been found scattered on the deep- sea bed in the form of manganese nodules. The exposed surface of nearly all rocks in deep water slowly acquires a coating of manganese dioxide and this can be used to indicate which way up a piece of rock lay. In plate 3, figure 1, the white patches on the broken boulders are probably places where a manganese coat is lacking and one can infer from this that they have been disturbed quite recently from the posi- tion in which they have lain for many thousands of years. The cauli- flower texture seen on the rock on the left of plate 9, figure 1, is due to a similar manganese crust. Underwater lava flows have been found photographically in a region where a dredge has been unable to pick up any loose material from the bottom. In plate 3, figure 2, photographed from the Amer- ican research vessel Vema, the roundness of the rocks is similar to that of the pillow lavas found on continental rocks and believed to have been solidified under water. Once again the nodular manganese coat- ing is plainly visible. The ripplemarks found in the deep sea are of great interest to sedi- mentary geologists. At one time it was thought that the deep sea was a region of very small currents and that the existence of ripplemarks in a sedimentary rock indicated deposition in shallow water. We now have direct evidence of ripplemarks being formed in deep water to- gether with scour and sand drifts around obstacles in the sand. Plate 6, figure 1, shows these features in globigerina sand at a depth of 1,700 fathoms. Almost every photograph taken in the deep ocean shows evidence of some kind of life existing there. In most cases it is impossible to give a specific name to the animals found, since the systematic classi- fication has l)een based on detail that is often not visible in a single picture. However, the pictures do show the animals in their nonnal habitat and in undamaged condition, whereas many of the dredged specimens have suffered damage in collecting, and distortion in the re- sultant pickling and storing in formalin. Plate 6, figure 2, shows an unusual holothurian that was previously known only from extensively damaged specimens collected by H.M.S. Challenger in 1875. One of the most fascinating puzzles posed by the pictures is the identification of the tracks and burrows found over the wide areas of the soft bottom. One must appreciate that with the sediment accumu- lating at the slow rate of only a centimeter or less in a thousand years, ft track once made will be visible for a very long time. Thus the density of tracks reflects the activity of several thousand years. Some PHOTOGRAPHY OF OCEAN FLOOR — LAUGHTON 325 of the tracks are made by animals on the surface and some by animals beneath it. Plate 2, figure 2, shows the broadest tracks found (about 4 inches across) and is representative of many such tracks found beneath the Atlantic. A similar track, but with much more pro- nounced transverse marks was photographed by Zenkevitch from the Russian research ship Vityas, in the Pacific. Although the central part of the track is raised, it must have been formed by an animal on the surface because of the regularity of marking. A possible interpre- tation is that the track was made by a mud-feeding animal which scoops the mud into its mouth with some form of arms or tentacles, producing transverse marks and a ridge of ooze, the central depression being made by a trailing tail. Possible animals to fit this theory are decapod crustaceans and holothurians of the type shown in plate 6, figure 2. Other interesting tracks are the sinuous and the spiral forms. These appear to have been made by worms burrowing just below the surface and stop suddenly when the worm burrows downward. The shapes of these tracks provide interesting evidence of the way in which an animal can search an area most economically and systematically. Many other interesting problems arise out of these photographs concerning the relationship between fauna and their environment. Photography will doubtless be used more and more in the future to study deep-sea marine ecology. FUTURE USE OF UNDERWATER PHOTOGRAPHY It is clear from the above discussion that deep-sea photography has its place in any investigation that includes the sea bottom. A photo- graph is second best to direct observation, but until bathyscaphes be- come more common, direct observation is not possible. It may be advantageous, in sampling the bottom, to attach a camera to the corer or dredge to estimate the sampling technique more efficiently. Cer- tainly, if it becomes a practicable proposition to drill into the solid rock of the seabed, photographic control would be most desirable. The deep-sea camera has been used as a tool in a number of ways other than those described. Fish, squid, and the deep scattering layer have been photographed in midwater using suitable triggering devices, and the camera has been incorporated as the recording method for the measurement of currents on the sea floor. Doubtless many other uses will be found in the future. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I am grateful to the director of the Lamont Geological Observatory, New York, for permission to publish the photographs shown in plate 326 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 196 3, figure 2, and plate 4, figure 2. Plate 1, figure 2, is published by per- mission of the British Petroleum Co. REFERENCES 1. EwiNG, M., Vine, A., and Wokzel, J. L. Journ. Opt. Soc. Amer., vol. 36, p. 307, 1946. 2. Laughton, A. S. Deep-Sea Res., vol. 4, p. 120, 1957. 3. Thorndike, E. M. Deep-Sea Re.s., vol. 5, p. 234, 1959. Reprints of the various articles in this Report may be obtained, as long as the supply lasts, on request addressed to the Editorial and Publications Division, Smithsonian Institution, Washington 25, D.C. mithsonlan Report. 1960 — Laughton PLATE 1 III ,: r^ssw^lpi 2P ^r "i "IT "5 ^ J S O CT3 t/^ ^ p 2 2 5 2 S „" o; g tiD o > £ 2 '^ 'C ,„ o 2 "^ •- •^ _D « ^ Smithsonian Report, I960— Laughton PLATE 4 1. Ruck and calcareous sand uu a scaiuuunl al l,:!SOjalhoiiis. I'caihcr)' comaiulid crinoids arc seen attached to branching corals. 3755.8, 41°12' N., 15°14' W. 2. Gorgonians, pennatulids, sponges, corals, and sea-urchins on the top of a seamount at 75 fathoms, showing the increased faunal population in.shallow water. \^4.18.10, 35°10' N., n°ss' w. Smithsonian Report .1960 — LaugfUcn Plate 5 Smithsonian Report, I960- Laughton Plate 6 1. Ri[iplc marks, scour, and sand drills in a calcareous sand on a seamount at 1,710 fathoms. 3755.29, 41°12'N., 15°14' W. 2. A rare holothurian {Peniagone), 8 inches long, showing feet, branching tentacles around its mouth for feeding, and its "sail" in a collapsed condition (extreme left). Depth 1,560 fathoms. 3755.4, 41°12'N., 15°14'W. * Smithsonian Report. I%0 Lauglito Plate 7 - mm ''-^M^. f '^ 2 '-' -— Ji 1J 2 f-H _rt 8-5 -^ ]-3 « - '£' :^. ( \ G O 1> Smithsonian Report, 1960 Laiigliton Plate 8 Smithsonian Report. I%0— Laughton History of a Tsunami By Elliott B. Roberts Captain, Coast and Geodetic Survey [Retired) [With 1 plate] On July 9, 1958, the rock layers 9 miles deep under the Fairweather Range of southeast Alaska grew tired of the unrelenting strains asso- ciated with a geological uplift going on in the region. At 15 minutes and 52 seconds after 10 in the evening, Pacific standard time, while it was still light in that high latitude, they broke apart in a shearing motion that started a chain of very weird events. For a few moments the scattered people in nearby parts of Alaska were unaware of that subterranean cleavage. All seemed peaceful and quiet — even the normally restless waters of the Pacific were as nearly calm as they ever are. At Yakutat, 115 miles to the northwest, postmaster John Williams and CAA employee Robert Tibbies, with their wives and a widowed cannery owner, Jeanice Welsh Walton, were preparing to leave Khantaak Island, where they had been pick- ing strawberries on Point Turner near the harbor navigation light. The Williams couple were some distance off the point in a launch, while the others were embarking in another boat. Quiet, late-evening sounds drifted from Yakutat and the few cabins around Dry Bay to the southward. Still farther south, mountain-girt Lituya Bay lay near the foot of 15,320-foot Mount Fairweather itself. Inside La Chaussee Spit at the bay entrance were two boats, the Badger, aboard which Bill and Vivian Swanson, of Auburn, Wash., lay asleep, and the /Sunmore, occupied by Orville Wagner, of Idaho Inlet, and his young wife IMickey. Farther in, near Lituya's south shore, were How- ard Ulrich and his 7-year-old son Junior, in the 38-foot Edrie. Just in from a day of fishing, they all sought a night's shelter before un- dertaking another day of labor in the Alaskan Gulf. Geologist Virgil Mann, of the University of North Carolina, and a party of 16 men were camped on the shore of Lake Crillon, among the hills 8 miles southeast of Lituya, preparing to move next morning to an abandoned cabin on Cenotaph Island almost in the exact middle of the bay. Ten Canadian mountaineers just down from history's second ascent of 570121—61 25 327 328 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1960 Fairweatlier, a boundary peak and British Columbia's highest point, had left their camp on the north shore of the bay shortly before, flying to Juneau a day early because of some weather apprehension of their KCAF pilot. In a violent break like that of July 9 the shearing motion spreads rapidly outward through a complex system of rock faults. The Fair- weather break reached the surface in a still-unexplored pattern of cracked granite and slumped earth reaching more than 150 miles through mountainous uplands and glacier-filled valleys — all the way from Icy Strait north to the vast Malaspina Glacier that spews down from the heights of the Cook- Augusta- St. Elias mountain massif. A wild upheaval exploded over the land in what seismologists were soon to rate one of America's greatest earthquakes. Boats at sea felt unimaginable hammering from the water. One fisherman 121/2 miles off Icy Point reported that despite a smooth sea he felt he was riding on a big explosion — the worst experience he ever had. Another said it felt like jumping 12 feet out of the water. The peaks of the Fairweather Range shivered visibly all the way to the summit more than 15,000 feet above the sea. Avalanches slowly began their descent amid great clouds of dust and flying snow. Some thought it looked like the end of the world. A whole mountainside came down at Point Astrolabe. The Swansons and the Ulrichs in Lituya Bay rose in alarm to gaze in unbelieving wonder and terror. Swanson and his wife later insisted that the terminal ice mass of Lituya Glacier rose into view from behind a headland up the bay, with great masses falling from its face, and then fell majestically into the water, creating a wave that went over the whole headland. It then caromed down the bay, scouring the shores of their trees, obliter- ating the mountaineers' campsite, overrunning Cenotaph Island and its lone cabin, and killing the Wagners and all but killing the Swan- sons in a surfboard kind of plunge of their two boats across 40-foot- high La Chaussee Spit to destruction in the sea outside — a wave of such improbability as to strain the credulity of later investigators, and to remain a scientific puzzle. A hundred miles of alluvial soils in the coastal lowlands shook and danced, giving birth to uncounted sandboils, sulfur stenches, 20- to 30-foot geysers, and great cracks, one of which completely swallowed a truck where it stood beside the Akwe River near Dry Bay. Several men, thrown to the ground in a cabin on nearby East River, managed to scramble out before its collapse, but found their escape through the heaving landscape only with great difficulty. In Yakutat Bay the Williams couple in their boat off Point Turner gasped when the outer part of the point seemed to rise 20 feet in the air, then collapse in a welter of churning waters that swallowed Tibbies and liis wife and HISTORY OF A TSUNAMI — ROBERTS 329 Mrs. Walton forever. Virgil Mann's geologists may well have been wishing they had moved earlier to the cabin on Cenotaph Island, farther from the center of the disturbance. The Canadian moun- taineers strolled the streets of Juneau a day ahead of their expecta- tions, unaware of the debt they owed their pilot for his weather worries. The beginnings of panic in Juneau's gently swaying Capitol Theater were stilled by the authoritative command rising above the soundtrack, "Keep your seats !" Public consternation and damage occurred over a 400,000 square mile area reaching such scattered places as Anchorage, Cordova, and Ketchikan. In Petersburg people ran to the streets. Landslides were seen in Warm Springs Bay, 100 miles south on Baranof Island, The fishing village of Pelican on Chichagof Island saw several hurt in the falling of objects, and heavy losses of equipment. One hundred miles to the east, near Juneau, a chimney toppled, bells rang, and a sandbar was seen "shaking like jelly." The Alaska Communications System had six cable breaks due to some kind of submarine upheavals in the Haines- Skagway area, and one at Wrangell, distant a surpris- ing 250 miles from the quake. At Seattle the Coast and Goedetic Survey's strong-motion seismograph in the Federal Building re- corded more than an inch of back-and- forth motion in the foundations of the city, and 20 musicians in an orchestra shell floating on Seat- tle's Green Lake, more than 1,000 miles from Fairweather's broken rocks, were shaken by a 5-minute series of oscillations — possibly an alltime distance record for human sensing of an earthquake. With- out doubt the most remote commotion of all was created when the Survey's tidal wave warning system went into operation after a minor sea wave was reported from the Sitka tide-gaging station. A public warning of a possible tidal wave in Hawaii, though later seen to be a false alarm, caused waves of excitement and traffic jams as people fled low-lying areas. Of more lasting concern was the dif- ficulty, back in Alaska, of salmon seining through masses of dead halibut, cod, and octopuses, their carcasses drifting among uncounted stripped and barkless logs, masses of ice, and other debris which cluttered the area for days. At the moment of Fairweather's rupture the springing of the torn rocks to less strained positions sent forth waves of vibrant motion that traveled the surface layers and the deep interior of the entire earth, arriving in due time at successively more distant seismograph stations, where delicately suspended instruments were set into respon- sive swinging. The floating orchestra pit at Seattle was in effect a giant earthquake detector — possibly the hugest on record. The waves included pressure variations of the type of sound waves in the air, sidewise jerks like the kink that travels a tightrope when it is 330 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 19G0 struck, and still others. They traveled numerous paths, some by re- flections within the earth, so that their arrivals at particular points made protracted and complex patterns on the recorders — patterns incomprehensible to anyone but skilled seismologists, but when cor- rectly interpreted very revealing indeed. In fact, they carried within their complex patterns extremely good indications of the distances the waves had come from their origin. Not many seismologists are aware immediately of a distant shock, because tlie typical seismograph recorder, which photographs the motions of a tiny spot of light, works in a dark chamber to make a record that is developed but once a day. (The favorite news story about the needle being knocked oS the record is more expressive than accurate — it reflects an obsolete process of scratching a line on a paper that has been blackened over a smoking lamp, a method in use before seismologists learned to make electrons do their work.) Mod- ern stations also use electrically driven recorders that draw the line visibly with ink, sometimes even hooked up to alarm devices; how- ever, such elaborate apparatus is not yet in universal use. In the case of the Fairweather shock, it was night in North Amer- ica and most American seismologists were off duty or asleep. The visible recorder in the Washington office of the Coast and Geodetic Survey went into violent action at 1 :24 a.m., the first waves having taken 7 minutes and 58 seconds to travel the 2,800 miles at an aver- age speed of almost 6 miles a second, but it worked unobserved for no one was there. Nor were witnesses present at other leading ob- serv^atories — Weston College, Harvard, Fordham, Columbia, St. Louis University, and many others. But the quake did not lack notice. Hardly had the groundwaves arrived when the Survey's observei-s at Tucson, Sitka, and Honolulu, in concert with cooperating seis- mologists on the Berkeley campus of the University of California and at Caltech's Seismological Laboratoiy in Pasadena, were rushing to their visible recorders to see what had set their bedroom alarms to ringing. Together they constituted a ready force for warning action in the face of a possible Pacific tidal wave, generated by the rising or sinking of an extensive segment of the ocean floor in an earthquake. This dramatic and often disastrous event, technically a seismic sea wave, is known more conveniently by the Japanese term "tsunami," the literal meaning of which is "waA^e-in-a-bay." Lituya's wave of 1959 was therefore a true tsunami, and, as it turned out, not a seismic sea wave. As is the way with seismologists the world around, a widespread exchange of station reports and interpretations had begun by morn- ing. In the coordination and analysis center of the Coast and Geo- detic Survey, plotting of the distance readings indicated where the HISTORY OF A TSUNAMI — ROBERTS 331 break had been — imder Mount La Perouse, 58.6° north of the Equa- tor and 137.1° west of the Greenwich meridian. William Stauder, a Jesuit scientist then workino; at Berkeley, plotted a position slightly different — near the coast at Point Astrolabe. It cannot be said which most nearly fits so deeply buried an event. The violence of the jig- gles recorded on the photographic paper showed how great was the energy of this quake. Standard instruments at Pasadena and Berke- ley showed it to be a true giant with a magnitude of 8.0 on the energy rating scale devised by Caltech scientists Beno Gutenberg and Charles Richter. The highest magnitude ever observed was about 8.7 on the same scale, a figure representing the greatest amount of energy, ac- cording to the Japanese seismologist C. Tsuboi, that can be stored in stressed rocks and released in a single quake. Tliis release of energy is estimated to equal some 100,000 Hiroshima-type atomic explosions, though it is of course far less concentrated in its effects. One earth- quake of such top-level magnitude was that of August 15, 1950, which triggered tremendous landslides in the high Himalaya of the China- Burma-India border area, and ultimately produced widespread floods in the Assam tea gardens. Another occurred in January 1906, in a remote part of Colombia, in South America. Neither killed many people, but had either area been populated, the death toll would have been enormous. The public importance attached to an earthquake is underetandably keyed to the damage and casualty rolls, rather than to its scientific evaluation ; hence the great earthquakes of history are not always the strongest. For instance, the Santa Barbara and Long Beach trage- dies of 1925 and 1933, both scientifically minor California shocks, will be remembered in company with their stronger fellows, such as the 1908 devastation of Messina, Italy, in which 100,000 died, and the Tokyo disaster of 1923, Avhich destroyed an unbelievable 576,000 build- ings in an earthquake and fire which claimed almost as many lives. Such a scientific front-rank event as the 1906 Colombian shock escaped public notice, and it is safe to say that the great Fairweather shock, which killed five people (and would have been forever infamous had it struck a large city) has passed long since from public notice. It will not soon be forgotten by seismologists, however, who now Imow it to be am.ong the four strongest shocks in the history of North America. In 1811 tlie river-bottom country about New Madrid, IMo., shook and shivered, and visible waves in the gromid, like those of the sea surface, startled unbelieving witnesses. Reelfoot Lake was created when 30,000 square miles of the land sank, some of it as much as 15 feet. The motions were felt by people throughout more than 2 million square miles, as far away as Boston. Seismologists say it was one of the greatest in all histoiy. In 1886 the famous Charleston, S.C, quake 332 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1960 destroyed 100 buildings at a cost of $5.5 million and left cracks in practically all masonry structures — cracks now proudly preserved by the owners of surviving houses as a kind of social distinction. The most famous, if not the strongest, of all American quakes was certainly the one that rocked San Francisco on April 18, 1906. Broken water mains contributed to the wide spread of a fire which caused the larger part of the 700-odd casualties and the half-billion dollar damage toll. San Franciscans insist on the distinction — there seems to be a question of civic pride in tliese matters — between the quake and the resulting fire. This is the only one of the three quakes to have a Gutenberg- Richter rating based on modern instrumental readings. It was 8.25, just barely ahead of the Fairweather shock. The Gutenberg-Richter scale has no relation to the number of people killed or houses wrecked but there are other types of rating scales that have. Seismologists call them intensity scales; instead of rating the energy of a quake, they furnish an evaluation of its local effects at a given place regardless of its distance from the shock. These scales are concerned with such things as public alarm, the falling of objects, cracking of plaster, destruction of buildings — even cracks in the ground. Such effects excite people, of course, and newspaper stories deal with them pretty much to the exclusion of such prosaic facts as their energy. The intensity scale most used in America is the Modi- fied-Mercalli scale, from a rating system devised by the Italian Mer- calli. Its highest grade is 12, an ominous number that signifies total destruction. Evidence is lacking for the explicit intensity rating of the Fairweather shock; had such ground movements occurred in a built-up locality, however, there can be little doubt that the destruction would have been essentially complete. Seismologists point to the fact that neither the New Madrid nor the Charleston earthquake occurred in an area known as dangerous, although nearby parts of South Carolina do, in fact, exhibit occasional minor sliivers. This supports the standard warning of the profession that no place on earth can be said to be really safe from damaging shocks. The 1906 event in California, on the other hand, was in a highly seismic area, directly on the well-known San Andreas Fault, a source of recurring shocks throughout a notorious past, and probably of many more to come. The Coast and Geodetic Survey has long made periodic repetitions of geodetic measurements in the vicinity of the San Andreas, finding slow movements of the land, which are proceeding, in fact, on a truly grand scale — a great region west of the San Andreas is slowly creeping northwestward in relation to the country east of the fault. This distortion amounts to some 2 inches a year, certainly enough in the course of centuries to place great stresses in the crustal rocks. Historical records are too short to HISTORY OF A TSUNAMI — ROBERTS 333 indicate with any certainty what patterns of earthquake recurrence may exist on the San Andreas, although some geologists have said that great earthquakes may occur somewhere along that zone of weakness at about 60-year intervals. This does not threaten San Francisco with a great jolt at any specific time, for the fault is very long — it extends from an origin in the Gulf of Lower California northward through the San Francisco area to an eventual disappear- ance in the sea off northern California — and an earthquake could oc- cur anywhere along its length. The San Andreas, for all its length, is but a detail in one of the world's great belts of seismic activity — an arc extending around much of the Pacific Basin, from the unstable western mountains of South and North America, through southern Alaska where lie the Fair- weathers and Lituya Bay, through the Aleutian Island chain, past Japan and the Philippines, and on southeastward toward New Zea- land. Some of the western Pacific areas on this arc show the greatest concentration of heavy shocks recorded anywhere in the world. The whole great arc is what is known as an orogenic zone — an area of geologically young and changing forms characterized by high moun- tains which have not had time to erode down as have the more mature Appalachians, and deep ocean trenches not yet filled with sediments. The progressive changes are typified by the crustal migrations shown by the geodetic surveys in California, and by the upward growth of southeast Alaska's mountains — movements that become earthquakes when the rocks fail to yield sufficiently fast and end by breaking. In the California quake of 1906 two mountains near San Francisco moved 10 feet farther apart at one stroke, and along the San Andreas the horizontal slipping in that one quake amounted in places to no less than 21 feet. Roads, fences, even rows of orchard trees were offset in broken lines where they lay across the fault. In another quake along the southern reaches of the great fault, a unique terri- torial problem was presented when the United States border with Mexico shifted position. There is geological evidence that these move- ments have been repeated so many times that their total accumulation along the San Andreas now amounts to as much as 350 miles or more. This probably took 100 million years, which, though long in himian terms, is but a brief period in geological time. In parts of southeast Alaska, particularly north of Icy Strait, the upward growth of the land has been monitored for many years. Long sequences of tide-gage observations east of the Fairweathers have shown how fast this is. At Haines in Lynn Canal the land has risen out of the sea some 5 feet in 60 years ; at Skagway and at Juneau the emergence has amounted to 3 feet in 50 years; and an engineering firm found indications of nearly 6 feet of rise of the land in Excur- 334 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1960 sion Inlet, which runs north out of Icy Strait, since the date of a patent survey made in 1909, These changes are unspectacular except when they occur as earthquakes — then the news circuits carry excited tales of events like those of July 9, 1958, at Lituya Bay. Don Miller, of the Geological Survey, and Don Tocher, of the University of Cali- fornia, in a preliniinaiy search of the most accessible reaches of the Fairweather Fault since the 1958 quake, found horizontal displace- ments of 211^ feet accompanied by new escarpments 3i/^ feet high. The land west of the fault moved northwestward, as it does in the case of California's San Andreas, suggesting a kind of grand-scale system at work. These movements may seem dramatic but they are minor compared to the dislocations of the Yakutat Bay earthquake of Sep- tember 10, 1899 — an earlier step in the long series of readjustments going on in the growing Fairweather Range. Yakutat Bay is a story in itself — the subject of extensive field examinations by the Geological Survey in the years foUoAving the shock and of bulky technical re- ports on the findings. The almost unbelievable fact is that the shores of Disenchantment Bay, an upper arm of Yakutat Bay, rose no less than 47 feet 4 inches out of the sea in that convulsion, the greatest known faulting ever to occur in a single quake. Lacking previous tide-gage records in the locality, many kinds of evidence had to be found to verify tliis startling observation, including traces of ele- vated beaches, old high-water marks on the rocks, and telltale effects on the vegetation. The best evidence, found some years after the event, was the remains of dead barnacles far out of the water. Verti- cal measurements between the highest live barnacles to be found and the highest dead barnacle shells proved the point beyond doubt. Wliat a prelude this was to the incredible events of July 9, 1958. These events received prompt attention by seismologists, geolo- gists, geodesists, and hydrographers. T. Niel Davis, of the Geo- physical Institute of Alaska, was soon there with a plane for view photography. By July 17 the Coast and Geodetic Survey had Merlin Natto on the scene with Air Photo Mission 701 to investigate topo- graphic changes. The Survey's ship Pathfinder under the command of Ira Eubottom arrived on September 16, en route from a surveying assignment in Bristol Bay, to obtain preliminary soundings of the underwater changes. The upheaval of Point Turner, which had swallowed Mrs. Walton and the Tibbies couple so abruptly, saw the utter disappearance of the harbor liglit and of some 100 to 150 feet of the south end of the island, cut off as if by a great cleaver. Compared with surveys made in 1942, 800 feet appeared to be gone, but much of this was probably the effect of erosion of the sandy deposits during the years. At any rate the land upon which the strawberry pickers had stood just before Sm!th5onian Report, 1960 -Roberts. Elliott B. PLATE 1 1. Kflecl nf grt-at \va\-e, Lituya l>a\-, Alaska. Prmnoniory cleaned of ircus to csliniatcd hcighi of 1,800 feci. 2. View of Lituya Bay, showing die \va\(.- scum aluiii: ilic shuK HISTORY OF A TSUNAMI — ROBERTS 335 the shock was now gone, and in its place there swept back and forth with the tides some 90 feet or more of water — more than enough to float the largest ship in existence. Topographic changes and differences in water depths were found in profusion. As if to balance the loss of Point Turner, 100 feet of the north end of Khantaak Island was found to have disappeared. The Pathfinder found sea bottom risen in places jls much as 78 feet and simken equally in others. Extensive portions of the shores of Yakutat Bay were gone, fallen into the sea with deep water flowing in their places. Such circumstances invalidate existing maps and charts, forc- ing the Coast and Geodetic Survey to plan comprehensive new surveys of both land and sea in its effort to keep up with this corner of the changing world. Geologists and seismologists are sure to study the area for yeai*s to come. While Yakutat Bay rearranged itself, the small fishing and com- mercial port from which the bay takes its name had its own share of excitement. Bridges, docks, and warehouses were damaged. The ground cracked near Mrs. Walton's cannery. Objects fell in pro- fusion, and a water tank collapsed in a twisted pile. The harbor cur- rents flowed the wrong way past the waterfront, and the so-called Millpond near the airport sloshed violently. The ramp rose and fell like the waves of the sea, while 1,100 helium cylinders, which had been stacked in neat array, all fell to the south as though bowing toward the origm of all the commotion. Virgil Mann reported a similar freak of nature from Lake Crillon, where whole stands of spruce trees had 15 feet of their tops broken off and thrown head down toward the south- west. But the most violent effects were in Lituya Bay, only 15 miles from the source of all the trouble. Six and a half miles long and two miles wide, with deep water and good anchorages, it is the only refuge — one ordained by nature to be precarious, at that — in the long stretch of forbidding coast between Cape Spencer and Yakutat Bay, and it has consequent interest for mariners seeking shelter from the rough seas of the Pacific. Lituya Bay was discovered in 1786 by the French explorer Jean Frangois de Galoup, Comte de la Perouse, in the course of a voyage of discovery with the vessels Astrolabe (named for a traditional astro- nomical instrument) and Boussole. He named it "Port des Frangais," but early Russian charts showed it as "Altua Bay," and the whalemen of the 19th century knew it, for obvious reasons, as "Frenchman's Bay." La Perouse described it as a place of great beauty by reason of the surrounding tree-clad hills and the majestic backdrop of the snowy Fairweathei-s. It had sandy shores abounding with straw- berries, and the glaciers at its head discharged small sparkling ice- 579421—61 26 336 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1960 bergs suitable for replenishing the mariners' iceboxes. Lituya's inner end is crossed like a T, with Lituya Glacier emptying into Gil- bert Inlet on the north, and Crillon Inlet and Glacier at the opposite end of the T. The corners where the inlets meet the bay are guarded by two mountains like gateposts, and the opposite shore on the east is a wall rising steeply toward the main mass of the big range. This nat- ural amphitheater, in which the normally still waters are walled about by liigh green- forested slopes and the towering faces of the glaciers, is a secluded place of cathedral-like solemnity and grandeur. Lituya may seem like a miracle of nature, but men have learned that it has a harsh and cruel aspect. For one thing, it is plagued by a narrow and difficult entrance, nearly closed by the spit known as La Chaussee because it looked to the Frenclimen so like a causeway or dike. The two small vessels of La Perouse, on first approaching, found themselves sucked into a veritable sluiceway where the tide flooded past sunken rocks through an 80-yard passage. After they whirled, completely out of control, into the calm v.ater of the bay and came to rest he wrote in his journal, "In my 30 years of naviga- tion I never saw two ships so near destruction." Later mariners have learned of the dangers lurking in these powerful currents, often made worse by the breaking of storm waves and terrifying tide rips, so they try to make the passage during the brief periods of slack water between the ebb and flow of the tide. La Perouse, it turned out, was not to escape disaster after all. While awaiting good weather he sent out small boats to survey the bay, 3 of them being seized in the ebb current and swept out the entrance through high combers, where 2 were swamped with the loss of 21 of his men. On his chart there was shown a low, rounded island near the middle of the bay, where he erected a monument to tlie memory of the lost sailors. The island has long borne the name Cenotaph. Subsequent liistory records a long tale of ship losses and drownings in Lituya's difficult entrance, of which La Perouse's was but the first. The chart also showed two Indian villages on the south shore of the bay, of which no trace exists today. It is not even known when they were destroyed, but it probably occurred during a great wave in 1853 or 1851 — there is an old tale relating how several sea-otter hunters survived the disappearance of their villages about tliat time by being at sea in their canoes. This, then, is the other of two evil aspects of Lituya — the lurking menace of unpredictable waves that wipe villages off the earth, that pick up anchored boats and throw them over La Chaussee Spit, that sweep mountainsides clean of their forests. There must have been many great waves in the unrecorded history of Lituya, One of them, in 1936, we know well from eyewitness HISTORY OF A TSUNAJMI — ROBERTS 337 accounts. At that time Jim ITuscroft had lived on Cenotaph Island, engaged in fishmg and prospecting, and he had built himself a cabhi 50 feet above the water on the southwest side of the island. He had a companion that year of 193G, with whom he liad salted down 50 barrels of salmon, storing them temporarily in a shed near the cabin. Huscrof t was gettmg breakfast on October 27 when a roar was heard, "like the drone of 100 airplanes at low altitude," followed by a wave sweeping down the bay. The two scrambled for safety on higher ground, saving themselves only to see their season's catch of salmon swept away and the cabin flooded. Its time had, however, not yet come, for there it was destined to stand for another 22 years awaiting an end in the greater, higher wave of 1958, 1 day before Professor Mann was to have moved in with his men. At least one other great wave is known through clever interpreta- tions of nature's telltale signs. The Geological Survey's Don Miller, a highly respected specialist on Alaskan geology and one of the first investigators of the 1958 wave, had noted some years ago that the trees about the shores of the bay grew in remarkable zones of uniform age, bordered by trim lines separating zones of diiferent ages. These trim lines he traced along the flanks of the hills bordering the bay, finding in them convincing evidence of successive scouring of the slopes by wave inundations at different times and heights. Miller found two definite trim lines, the lower having a maximum height of 400 feet in one arm of the bay and lesser heights toward its en- trance, and the other generally higher one with a greatest altitude 2 miles from Lituya's inner end. It was clear that the younger trim line was created in 1936 by the wave seen by Huscroft. The other, according to tree-ring studies, must have been in the winter of 1853- 54. Neither of these dates has a record of any important earthquakes near Lituya; therefore these inundations, whatever their cause, are not necessarily seismic sea waves. Miller presented these facts at an annual meeting of the Geological Society of America in Seattle during 1954, finding skepticism, despite his compelling evidence, that sea waves could wash hundreds of feet high on a mountainside. The doubts were shared by oceanographers and hydrographic surveyors. They thought they knew the sea, but they little knew the power of Lituya. Miller had discussed possible causes of such waves, finding unlikely the release of an ice-dammed lake, or the fall of glacier ice into the bay. He found the idea of earthquake uplieavals under the water a tempting idea, but noted the absence of any earthquake records for the years concerned. The speculation was made even more imag- inative when some of Professor Mann's men later suggested that the 1958 wave, which followed a very violent quake indeed, might have 338 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 19 60 been caused by an opening of a cavernous crack in the sea floor, sucking in the water only to close again with a violent squirt up over the hillsides. This, however, seemed improbable. From later study of Natto's aerial photographs and survey records it is clear that many gi-eat landslides occurred, falling down the moun- tainsides from heights as great as 3,000 feet, and that tremendous masses of ice fell from the tow^ering face of Lituya Glacier. Whether triggered by an earthquake as on July 9, or by other causes, such great volumes of material suddenly dumped in the confined waters of a bay can apparently raise the water level enough to generate a wave. On July 9, 1958, there was caused such a wave which may have been 50 or 100 feet or more in height — a wave that sloshed back and forth in a maelstrom with energy enough to send its waters high on the banks, take down trees and earth, and to make Miller's trim lines understandable after all. It ended by sweeping down the bay, leaving a trim line of varying height according to the configuration of the hills, but apparently as high in places as 500 feet. On the way it scoured the slopes of Cenotaph Island up to 165 feet, and flowed through a low point on its ridge, incidentally removing every recog- nizable object at the site of Huscroft's old cabin. Even at the bay entrance, after a 6-mile trip, it still had force enough to break loose the two anchored boats and lift them over the spit and completely out of the bay. The wave heights of July 9 were immediately seen to dwarf those that had left Miller's old trim lines. All the viewers in the days following the wave exclaimed in amazement at the appearance of the western mountain at the corner of Gilbert Inlet. A\niere it had for- merly been tree clad all the way down to the shore, its steep bulwark now stood starkly bare to a height of more than 1,600 feet. The rocks seemed to be washed clean — did this mean that the wave had climbed to the incredible height of 10 Niagaras? There were those, including the authorities Miller and Tocher, who thought so from the first, but mass skepticism met their claim, and the controversy is not yet stilled. There was most certainly a landslide on the western mountain, and it is easy to point out that it alone could have denuded the mountain, but this easy explanation falls before the opinion of the Survey photogrammetrists, experts at photointerpretation and the appraisal of land detail revealed by stereographic plotting instru- ments. Concluding the compilation of a new topogi'aphic map from Natto's photographs, they expressed their unanimous conviction that the water did reach a height somewhere between 1,200 feet and the top of the bared mountainside area. It was apparent to them that notliing but an actual flood could possibly have scoured the folded and creviced rocks so thoroughly clean of every bit of dirt and HISTORY OF A TSUNAMI — ROBERTS 339 debris — certainly not the landslide alone. Then, too, there are the eyewitness reports of the survivors of the wave. It seems that the Lituya Bay wave of 1958, a true tsunami in the original sense of "wave-in-a-bay," unbelievably but in all probability threw its foaming crest higher than any wave ever before known to man. Eyewitness stories of the Lituya events come from the Swansons and from Howard Ulrich. Bill and Vivian Swanson, occupants of the Badger during her mad flight across La Chaussee Spit in company with the ill-fated Wagners, somehow managed to get clear of the wreck in an 8-foot punt, undergoing exposure and fright as well as loss of their worldly possessions, before their rescue by a fisherman named Graham m the trawler Luman. They were quickly flown to Juneau in a rescue plane and, after a short hospital rest, were able to describe their experience. They were sure they had seen the glacier riding high into sight from behind the western mountain, followed by a great wave of water washing over its steep face. During the following wild ride across the spit they believed they were 100 feet high, for there had been trees on the spit, and they were above them. They looked down on rocks as big as houses. They were incredulous and deeply thankful to be alive. The stoiy told by the other survivors, Howard Ulrich and his son, will probably be unmatched for a long time to come. In a vivid account published in The Alaska Sportsman Ulrich tells how they entered the ba}'^ on the last of the floodtide for rest after a day of poor fish- mg. He anchored the Eclrie in a cove on the south side a mile or so inside the entrance, and after supper he and Sonny went to sleep, only to be awakened by violent motions soon after 10:15. Dash- ing to the deck, Ulrich beheld the writliing and twisting of the high peaks and the clouds of dust and flying snow about their summits. Petrified, he watched for 2 minutes or more until his attention was attracted to a new sight. There was a gigantic w^all of water which he thought to be 1,800 feet high ei-upting against the western moun- tain, then coming down the bay, cutting a swath through the trees on the summit of Cenotaph Island, backlashing against the eastern shore up to a height of 500 feet, then heading for the Edrne, now a wall of water 50 feet high. Suddenly he realized he had to move. Cursing himself for delay- ing, he got a lifejacket on Sonny, then somehow got the engine going, but he was miable to heave the anchor in time. Just before the water struck he veered the chain to its end, hoping to slip it, at the same time maneuvering the Edrie to face the wave. As she lifted to the swell the chain tightened and snapped, its short end whipping up and winding around the pilothouse. The boat was swept, completely 340 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1960 out of control, over what had been dry land a moment before. By now Ulrich remembered his radio. Shouting into it, he made the international voice-radio distress call, "Mayday, Mayday — Edr'ie in Lituya Bay — all hell broke loose — I think weVe had it — goodbyl" The wave, however, changed course and bounced off the shore, allow- ing Ulrich, with strenuous efforts and certainly with superb seaman- ship, to get his boat under a kind of control, lie now began devoting himself to evading huge chunks of churning ice, any one of which could have made kindling wood of the Edrie. The next problem was to get out of the bay through its turbulent and tricky entrance — a passage bad enough at the height of the ebb, not to speak of the wild conditions of that particular moment — for the remotest chance of getting out looked mighty good to Ulrich just then. He tucked pillows about Sonny and told him to hang on for dear life. A stroke of luck now appeared in the form of a helping hand. A fellow fisherman had become aware of the situation and was taking station outside the channel in his boat Theron to give Ulrich a guiding mark for running the swift ebb tide. Bracing him- self, Ulrich headed for the biggest gamble of his life. Ages later, it seemed, he was out. Three giant combers had broken over the tiny pilothouse, but the Edrie was sturdy — she shivered but she came through. Howard Ulrich does not know whether he will ever enter Lituya again, but the chances are he will. Seamen are like that. Hailstorms and Hailstones of the Western Great Plains' By Vincent J. Schaefer State University College of Education Albany, N.Y. [With 8 plates] During the evening of June 27, 1959, the region of Grand Island, Nebr., was ravaged by a very severe hailstorm. The intensity of the storm, including wind, lightning, rain, and hail, was of the degree which has given this area of the Great Plains the dubious reputation for having some of the worst hailstonns in the world. The storm displayed its greatest intensity between the hours of 2120 and 2200 in the region irmnediately north of Grand Island. The losses, estimated at greater than $5 million in the Hall County area alone, consisted of damage to crops, buildings, homes, automobiles, and aircraft. So many windows were broken that all local supplies of glass were depleted, requiring emergency shipments from Omaha. The windshields of hundreds of automobiles were shattered as shown in plate 1, figure 1. A newly reconditioned Convair aircraft parked at the Grand Island airport was dented and windows were broken as shown in plate 1, figure 2. According to local news reports, the anemometer used by the Federal Aviation Administration was blown away as it recorded a wind velocity of 80 miles an hour. Plate 2, figure 2, illustrates the damage done to a 3-cup anemometer at the airport, and plate 2, figure 1, some of the hail remaining on the ground the next morning. The most damaging hail was reported along a strip 5 miles wide and some 30 miles long. The storm w^as reported to have developed so quickly and moved so fast that there was insufficient time to give ade- quate warning. The hail phase of the storm developed between Ea- venna and Cairo, and moved rapidly eastward through the Boelus area, going almost to Central City. At Boelus, a tornado was reported. Much damage occurred in Cairo, Nebr., with most of the broken 1 Reprinted by permission from Nublla, vol. 3, No. 1, Verona, Italy, 1960. 341 342 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 19 60 windows being on the west side of buildings. At Grand Island, the storm caused major damage on the north side of the city with the southern area having little diihculty. Although local reports suggested that the storm developed sud- denly about 20 miles west of Grand Island, an examination of field observations from several sources shows that a violent storm developed in the broad trough in the lee of the front range of the Rocky Moun- tains wdiich remained after a cold front passage on June 26. At about 1300 on the 27th, large cumulus clouds began building 20 miles west of Sterling, Colo. [1].^ These initially formed as single cells, but by 1450 had moved eastward and merged mto an intense 80-mile squall line stretching from Akron to Julesburg, Colo. At 1510, a pilot, flying at about 12,000 feet east of Sterling, reported his AT-6 aircraft was showing 150 knots airspeed with the throttle closed. An observer at Haxtun, Colo., reported roll clouds dropping to the ground and back up to the cloud base at 12,000 feet within intervals of less than a minute. Very little hail occurred in northeastern Colorado with the exception of a zone of heavy hail damage 25 miles to the west of Sterling. This occurred in the early afternoon. The wind at Sterling, Colo., at ground level reached a maximum of 75 miles an hour during the squall-line passage at about 1400. From the Haxtun- Holyoke area, 26 farmers called the Sterling field station to report the woret storm situation they had ever seen. If a line is drawn from the zone north of Fort Morgan and west of Sterling, where severe hail damage was reported early in the afternoon of the 27th, to the area of heaviest damage which occurred at 2145 north of Grand Island, Nebr., the distance is 250 miles, and the storm propagation at ground level shows an average rate of movement of 28.5 m.p.h. The direction of propagation closely coincides with the winds at 500 mb. which showed a velocity of 40 to 45 knots during this period. During the period 2036 to 2242, very intense radar echoes from the Grand Island area were observed at Schilling Air Force Base near Salinas, Kans. Two strong echoes passed across the area where the most severe hail damage occurred. The largest echo showed a hooklike protuberance and coincided with the area of highest intensity and damage. During the most intense hail period it had a diameter of about 20 miles. This pair of echoes moved at a speed of about 45 m.p.h. with an azunuth of about 255°. This was the wind velocity and direction shown on a 500-mb. chart of 1800 c.s.t. Another radar unit at Offutt Air Force Base near Omaha showed the same echoes and indicated that this portion of the storm complex comprised the southern extrem- ity of an extensive storm system, which by 2157 contained a line of echoes over 100 miles long whose major axis was oriented with an * Numbers In brackets refer to list of references at end of article. Smithsonian Report, 1960 — Schaefer Plate 1 1. llail damage to automobile parked at Grand Island, \ebr., evening of June 27, 1959. (Frontier Airlines photograpli.) zT-^-y:-:^' 2. Hail damage to Convair aircraft parked at Grand Island Airport, June 27, 1959. (Frontier Airlines photograph.) Smithsonian Report, I960 — Schaefer Plate 2 1. Hail remaining on ground at Grand Island, Nebr., morning of June 28, 1959. Airlines photograph.) (Frontier 2. Hail damage to 3-cup anemometer located at Grand Island .Airport, June 27, 1959. (Frontier Airlines photograph.) Smithsonian Report. 1960- Schaefer Stofrti Tr } , 30 mi. I 2 7 J u r\j E. S? SAZ.//VA.KA/V5AS 1. Radar echoes of hail cells and their ideographic relationship to the hail damage zone, June 27, 1959. 2. Position of front and low pressure on wave moving slowly eastward, June 26-2S, 1959. Smithsonian Report, 1 960— Schaefer PLATE 4 w ^ o Smithsonian Report, 1960 — Schaeter Plate 5 Typical cross sections of hailstones from Grand Island, Xebr., storm of June 27, 1959. Smithsonian Report, 1960 — Schaefer Plate 6 Typical cross sections of hailstones from Grand Island, Nebr., storm of June 27, 1959. Smithsonian Report, 1 960— Schaefer Plate 7 Smithsonian Report, 1960 Schaefer Plate 8 HAILSTORMS AND HAILSTONES^SCHAEFER 343 azimuth of 250°. The radar photos and their geographic relationship to the hail damage zone is shown in plate 3, figure 1. 1. ORIGIN AND FEATURES OF THE STORM During the latter part of June, the area east of the front range of the liockies experienced a series of severe hailstonns. On June 26, the leading edge of a cP air mass moved out of Wyoming with the center of the low over the Wyoming plains near Rawlins early that morning. This low moved northeastward during the next 18 hours with hail and thunderstorms drifting slowly eastward as shown in plate 3, figure 2. Although a temperature difference of 5° to 10° Fahrenlieit marked the division between cP and mT air, the major difference in surface flow during the daylight hours of the 27th was a wind shift from south to north following the squall-line passage. Toward evening an intense zone of surface convergence was centered in the vicinity of Plall County and presumably intensified the two large cells which produced the hail damage. The situation at the surface at 2200 is shown in plate 4, figure 1. During the late afternoon and early part of the evening until 2000, large CB and towering cumulus were noted by Weather Bureau ob- servers at Grand Island in the area from the northeast to the south of that station. 0400 ObOO 0300 IDOO 1200 |400 IfaOO f^SJ^ / 2000 UDO e •,V / ' fr3'«*£Ii^ 1959 activity - : KK'"" Mauna 50 100 ISOmilcs Kilauea LANAl KAH001.AWE I55°00' Figure 1. — Oblique perspective of a portion of the Island of Hawaii, showing the 1959-60 eruption sites on the summit and east rift zone of Kilauea Volcano. Vertical scale is exaggerated. Small-scale inset map shows principal islands in the Hawaiian Archipelago. Within this large summit caldera of Kilauea is still another smaller depression, known as Halemaumau, the usual site of Kilauea summit eruptions. The 1959-60 eruptive episode of Kilauea had its real beginning months before the first surface outbreak and miles beneath the Kilauea summit. Between October 1958 and February 1959, analysis of data from the U.S. Geological Survey's liquid-level tiltmeter bases,^ in- stalled around the summit, indicated that the whole caldera region was swelling upward, suggesting that magma was welling up quietly from the depths and accumulating in a zone several miles beneath the caldera. Following several moderate earthquakes during Feb- ruary 1959, the swelling stopped; and from May until August the summit slowly subsided. In August a great swarm of earthquakes and tremors originating about 35 miles beneath the caldera was re- corded by the U.S. Geological Survey's seismograph net on Hawaii. Magma moving into the deep volcanic plumbing system during this period made itself felt at the surface shortly, for rapid swelling of Kilauea resumed. In mid-September a very sensitive telerecording seismograph at the northeast edge of Halemaumau began recording a swarm of tiny quakes originating less than half a mile away. Al- ^ Piers for a portable water-tube leveling system which Is capable of measuring very small differences In the inclination of the land surface. Smithsonian Report. I960 — Richter and Eaton 1. View lookinsr west across Kilauea Iki durinu the early morning of December 5, 1959 (fourth phase), showing fountain, cone, and incandescent glow through the cracks in the crust of the la\'a pond. Pond at this time was 395 feet deep. IHt ■» .> I'm' rJ , ^ V If* '^ V - , • rati ' ^ ^ * -^^ ^ ' 2- I- '■!■ ' ■ : , I ' I ■ , _ __ __ . _ [_ _ .. ..: I ij' I, :■:::_'. _'__.:._., :__'_: j-criod of strong earthquake activity on January 13, 1960, immediately preceding the flank eruption. Smitlisonian Report. I'>(i0 Ricliter and Eaton Plate 2 1. l,4()()-lc)uL luuiuaiii oil Jaiuiai\ 1'^, I'XA). (.luring sixth da\- of Hank cru of Kapoho is left of the fount_ain behind the pahn trees. ptinii. \'il!age 2. A'lain road east of the village of Kapoho being crossed by slovv-mo\ing, blocky (aa) lava flow on January 27, 1960. Note buckling of asphalt paxxment in the foreground and burning telephone pole. ERUPTIONS OF KILAUEA VOLCANO — RICHTER AND EATON 351 Summit Flank Eruption Eruption East -West component of tilting of Uwekahuna May 1959 to March 1960 Tilting pattern Aug IS -Oct 16 Tilting rate I X 10 radian per month 063 inches per mile per month Tilting rate 100x10'° radians per month 6 34 inches per mile per month Figure 2. — East-west component of tilting at Uwekahuna from May 1959 to March 1960, Tilting toward the west corresponds to swelling of the summit of Kilauea and tilting toward the east to subsidence. Patterns of tilting around Kilauea Caldera are shown for slow swelling (inset A) and for rapid subsidence (inset B). though these quakes were exceedingly small, their number was im- pressive ; over 22,000 by November 14. Except for their smaller size they closely resembled those preceding the 1955 eruption of Kilauea from its east rift zone. Uncertain of the exact significance of these tiny shallow quakes, remeasurement of the tilt-base changes was initiated early in November. Dramatic changes had occurred: the caldera region was swelling at a rate at least three times faster than had been detected previously (inset A, fig. 2). The eruption on the night of November 14 appeared at the surface with electrifying suddemiess, not in Halemaumau as anticipated, but in Kilauea Iki, a pit crater about a mile long and half a mile wide, separated from the summit caldera by a low, narrow ridge. Starting in a single fissure halfway up the 600-foot south wall of the crater, lava fountains rapidly spread laterally in both directions. By 10 p.m. 10 short fissures, each with 1 or more active fountains, formed a dis- continuous "curtain of fire" half a mile long. Gradually activity 352 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1960 ceased in the outermost vents and by 4 a.m. on November 15, only two fountains remained. One of these lasted through the early afternoon, when it too died ; the other gi-ew in size, eventually reaching the un- precedented height of 1,900 feet on December 17, during tlie 15th phase of the eruption. With the eruption confined to a pit crater, samplmg and observation were greatly facilitated ; there was little danger to human life and only minor damage to the land and forest (pi. 1, fig. 1). Furthermore, rather precise calculations of the volume and rate of lava extrusion could be made, much the same as in a graduated cylinder. The first phase of the summit eruption lasted a half hour less than a week, forming a lava pond in Kilauea Iki 335 feet deep and containing 40 million cubic yards of fresh basaltic lava. After a brief 5-day respite activity resumed. Sixteen additional eruptive phases of much shorter duration occurred in the 3-week period that ended December 20, 1959, and contributed an additional 11 million cubic yards of lava to the pond, increasing its depth to a maximum of 414 feet. Although the duration of the later phases decreased, the rate of lava output increased. In the first phase a maximum of 500,000 cubic yards per hour was measured ; the 16th phase spewed out its lava at the phe- nomenal rate of 1,600,000 cubic yards per hour. From the end of the second phase when the level of the pond rose above the volcanic vent, liquid lava drained back into the vent each time the fountain stopped. In fact, almost all the lava erupted after the end of the sixth phase poured back down the vent. The rates for this withdrawal were also phenomenally high. Although less accurately determined than the extrusive rates, backflow rates exceeding 3 million cubic yards per hour, or almost four times the average rate of extrusion, were meas- ured. Inasmuch as the lava of these later phases was still heavily charged with gas and had not decreased in temperature significantly, it appears that the lava draining back into the vent was not recycled but merely added to the enormous bulk of magma in the intricate sys- tem underneath the summit which fed the vent. The temperature of the lava erupted at Kilauea Iki was consistently measured between 1,120° and 1,190° C. The percentage of silica in the lava varied between 46.3 and 49.5 during the early phases, but more or less stabilized at 46.8 after the fourth phase. Petrographically the lava is a tholeiitic picrite basalt, consisting of olivine phenocrysts set in a fine-grained groundmass of plagioclase feldspar, pyroxene, and glass. The high temperature, mineralogj^ and chemistry correlate with the generally "primitive" nature of the lava, modified only by accumulation of olivine. After the cessation of surface activity in Kilauea Iki on December 20, 1959, only small harmonic tremor, indicating minor lava movement ERUPTIONS OF KILAUEA VOLCANO — RICHTER AND EATON 353 at depth, was recorded on the Survey's seismographs. Tilt measure- ments, however, showed extremely rapid tumescence of the summit area, strongly suggesting that magma was still welling up from the depths and that the eruption was not over. Supplementing the seismo- graph network with a sensitive portable seismograph late in December, Survey scientists followed the development of a swarm of small earth- quakes along Kilauea's east rift zone, 24 miles from Kilauea Iki and not far from the site of the first outbreak of the 1955 flank eruption. It appeared that magma inflating the summit region was also exerting pressure on the plastic cores of the rift zones. As the rift zones yielded, earthquakes revealed where dikes began to open toward the surface. In early January the frequency and size of the earthquakes in the east rift zone increased, and the area from which they emanated moved on toward the sea. On January 13 strong earthquakes centered near the village of Kapoho 28 miles east of Kilauea's summit, and an old graben ^ 2 miles long and half a mile wide, which contained part of the village and most of the farmland that sustained it, began to subside. By nightfall displacements along the faults bounding the graben had grown to several feet (pi. 1, fig. 2), and Kapoho was evacuated. At 7:30 that evening the flank eruption began along a line of en echelon fissures 0.7 mile long, a few hundred yards north of the village. Once more the eruption started as a dazzling incandescent curtain of fire that within 2 days shrank to a main eruptive zone, which continued fountaining throughout the flank eruption stage (pi. 2, fig. 1) . Three hours after the initial outbreak, sea water gained access to the main vent area producing dense voluminous steam, salt, and fine ash clouds that roared 2,000 feet into the air. Within a few hours, however, fluid lava efl'ectively sealed the conduits and only occasionally during the following 3 weeks was there appreciable steam emission. The main fountain area, 2 miles from the seacoast at an elevation of approximately 90 feet, soon produced a steady stream of lava that slowly flowed down through the graben, reaching the sea on the night of January 15. At the end of the first week of the eruption the low graben area was essentially filled ; and although lava continued to push slowly into the sea, the reduced gradient forced material to spread laterally over the adjacent old land surface (pi. 2, fig. 2). Slowly the lava flows inundated the village of Kapoho, the smaller community of Koae to the north, a U.S. Coast Guard station, and a number of beach residences along the coast. On February 6, w^lien lava extrusion had essentially ceased, approximately 156 million cubic yards of lava had formed a pad of about 2,500 acres, including about 500 acres of * An elongated block which has subsided between a pair of normal faults. 354 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1960 new land beyond the former coastline. Between February 6 and Feb- ruary 20 the main vent area continued to emit gas, spatter, and pumice, building a large cone to a height of 420 feet above sea level. The first lavas extruded in the flank eruption were very similar chemically and mineralogically to the lavas erupted in 1955, and it is highly probable that they represent magma stored in a relatively near surface reservoir after the activity in 1955. Both lavas are poor in olivince but contain abundant phenocrysts of plagioclase feldspar and pyroxene. Their degree of differentiation is also shown by the rela- tively high silica content of about 50 percent. Near the end of Jan- uary, after 2 weeks of steady eruption, the nature of the lava gradually changed. The temperature increased to 1,100° C, compared to 1,050° to 1,060° C. for the earlier material, the viscosity decreased, and olivine phenocrysts became abundant. Apparently the magma which was forcing its way through the rift zone from the summit was only then reaching the flank eruption area. During the last week of strong lava output in February, the temperature increased even more — maxi- mum measured was 1,130° C. — and the lava was nearly identical to that of Kilauea Iki. Shortly after the outbreak of the flank eruption tilt measurements revealed a very rapid settling of the summit area (inset B, fig. 2), and by the end of January a strong swarm of shallow earthquakes was being recorded at the summit stations. As more and more lava moved from the summit area through the rift zone toward the flank eruption, the settling became even more pronounced and the earthquakes more frequent. Strong, frequent earthquakes from the vicinity of 450-feet- deep Halemaumau, together with the issuance of steam from new areas around its floor, led Survey scientists to believe that the rapid with- drawal of lava from beneath the caldera might result in some form of surface collapse. By daybreak on February 7 the collapse had begun, and within a few hours the former flat floor of Halemaumau was a saucer-shaped depression 150 feet beloAv its original level. Then just before noon and within a period of 10 minutes a small area, 1,000 feet in diameter in the center of the larger collapse feature, dropped an additional 200 feet, and a small volume of highly viscous lava oozed into the newly formed hole. Through the afternoon the subsidence gradually ceased and the oozing of lava abated. Two days later another smaller collapse occurred in the floor, but was not accom- panied by the extrusion of lava. All the collapse appears to be di- rectly attributable to the withdrawal of a portion of the still fluid core in the 300-foot lava lake which filled Halemaumau in 1952. Some lava, however, was forced outward into the innermost collapse pit by the lithostatic pressure being applied around the periphery of the main collapse area. ERUPTIONS OF KILAUEA VOLCANO — RICHTER AND EATON 355 Although, at the time of this writing, earthquakes are still being recorded under Kilauea's summit and the summit is still deflating, the collapse in Halemaumau appears to be the culmination of this dra- matic and enlightening volcanic episode. Never before has the se- quence of summit eruption, flank eruption, and summit collapse of Kilauea Volcano been manifested so rapidly and completely. Reprints of the various articles in this Report may he ohtained, as long as the supply lasts, on request addressed to the Editorial and Publications Division, Smithsonian Institution, Washington 25, D.C. Diamonds* By H. J. LoGiE 2 Professor of Experimental Physics University of the Wilwatersrand I HAVE clioseii in this inaugural lecture to talk about the diamond ; it is the hardest known natural mineral; it cannot be scratched by anything but another diamond ; it cannot be dissolved by any known liquid or melted by any conventional tecliniques. From the scien- tific point of view it is the prototype of crystals which show covalent bonding and from this viewpoint alone it is of great interest, since the whole crystal can be looked on as one giant molecule. Much of the wealth of South Africa has come from gold and from diamonds, and yet it is remarkable how little research has been done in this comitry into the fmidamental properties of either. In the case of diamonds, the Diamond Research Laboratories in Johannes- burg are a notable exception and it was largely through financial help from them that a program of diamond research was instituted at this university. It is some of the results of these studies which will be presented in this lecture. However, though the ordered inner struc- ture of the diamond is the chief concern of the scientist and of this lecture, even the scientist cannot be completely indifferent to the out- ward beauty of the gem nor can he fail to be intrigued by the part which diamonds have played in the history of this country, and by the stories which have grown up around some of them. I would not be doing full justice to the subject if these aspects were completely ignored. With complete lack of scientific foundation, the diamond has been credited with many marvelous virtues ; amongst others the power of averting insanity and of being an antidote to poison; and in the Middle Ages it was known as the pietra della reconciliazione — as the peacemaker between husband and wife. I understand that a belief in this property is not without its adherents today. The diamond, ^ Inaugural lecture delivered May 21, 1958, at the University of the Wltwatersrand. Re- printed by permission of the Wltwatersrand University Press, Johannesburg, South Africa, publishers. * Professor Logle died Nov. 8, 1958. 357 358 ANNUAL REPORT SIVnTHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 196 however, has not always played the part of the peacemaker. You may recall Becky Sharp's diamonds. The wicked Lord Steyn gave them to her and she kept them hidden from her husband Rawdon Crawley, and only wore them when she secretly entertamed her wealthy benefactor. One night Rawdon came home unexpectedly and found Becky hung with trinkets and singing to Lord Steyn. lie was so angered that he tore the diamonds from her and ground them beneath his heel and left home forever. Then there is the delightful scene of the servant creeping into the room afterwards, picking up the diamonds and running away with them, broken as they were. Another story that springs to mind is the one which Dumas tells in his novel "The Queen's Necklace," This extraordinaiy affair took place at the French Court in the tune of Louis XV and involved the King, Madame du Barry, the Prince Cardinal de Rohan, and Marie Antoinette. A magnificent diamond necklace was made by the court jeweler in the hope that it would be bought by Louis XV. His death in 1774 left the jeweler without a purchaser until an adventuress "Countess" Lamotte and her partner the notorious trickster, Caglios- tro, managed to dupe the Cardinal into buying the necklace on behalf of the Queen, All was eventually discovered, but not before the necklace had been broken up and sold piecemeal and the scandal had aroused popular feeling against Marie Antoinette who was entirely blameless, and in fact, ignorant of it all. The populace of Paris, in that state of excitement and rage which terminated in the Reign of Terror, could not be convinced of this, and even at the last, the mob that surromided the tumbril that bore the unfortmiate queen to the guillotine, cast slurs upon her on account of this diamond necklace affair. Almost as fantastic as stories which have been written about dia- monds are the accounts of attempts which have been made to manu- facture diamonds artificially. Until fairly recently there is no evi- dence to show that any of the claimants to success were any more than optimists or charlatans. But 3 or 4 years ago the General Elec- tric Co. in America did manage to achieve the enormous temperatures and pressures which are needed to produce diamonds in the laboratory, and now have an output of 3I/2 million carats per annum of industrial diamond grit. When it is remembered tliat the South African export market for this class of diamond is 11 million carats per annum, it will be appreciated that the scale of production of the artificial stones is by no means a negligible one. In some applications these artificial diamonds are superior to the natural ones, in other cases they are not. Prior to this very remarkable achievement on the part of scientists at the General Electric Co., we relied upon geologists and prospectors and miners to meet the demand for these precious stones. Diamonds DIAMONDS — LOGIE 359 are found in Nature as single crystals and seldom showing any sign of having been previously attached to any matrix. Absolutely color- less stones are not as coimnon as cloudy or faintly colored specimens ; the most common tints are gray, brown, yellow, and blue- white. Much more exotic colors are also sometimes found, and red, green, blue, and black stones are know^n. When the diamond has been cut and polished as a brilliant, it has 58 facets and in a tasteful setting is a tiling of great beauty. Even people who do not long to possess diamonds are seldom indifferent to their attractions. And this despite the fact that diamonds and graphite are made of the same single element — carbon. They are in fact different in appearance and characteristics only be- cause the carbon atoms have been packed together in a slightly differ- ent way. We shall return to this point later. There is art in the production of a gem stone. Nearly all the finest jewels reach the lapidary as rough stones of typically octahedral shape. The first task is to saw the diamond into two parts. Along certain planes the sawing process is easy ; along others it is difficult. Simi- larly when it comes to polishing the faces, which is done on a revolving wheel impregnated with diamond dust (a method which was hit upon shortly before Columbus discovered America), it is foimd that it can best be done in certain directions rather than in others. The diamond cutters speak of this as being due to the "grain" of the stone, and on any face there are "easy" and "hard" polisliing directions which may differ in their abrasive hardness by a factor of 10,000. All this has been a matter of scientific study, and only recently and after centuries of tradition, has the lapidary's art been changed to a science. Provided that the size of the diamond is convenient — and size, or rather weight, is measured in carats with 142 carats to the ounce — the cutter will divide the rough diamond into two parts by sawmg along a plane parallel to the base of the two pyramids which form the octahedron. The larger portion is the more economical to work with. The corners are rounded off, then the bezel and the pavilion are polished to make 58 facets in all. About half the weight will be lost in the process, but the rather dull-looking stone has come to life as a result. The unusual brilliance of a diamond is due to its high refractive index (2.42) which makes the critical angle 24i/2°; the very high dispei-sion of the diamond gives it the "fire" or display of spectral colors. For centuries diamonds have been cut and polished using methods similar to these and in the case of some of the great jewels which have been in existence for hundreds of years, one is amazed at the excellence of the work. Round these huge diamonds, which have usually been the property of Idngs, there have grown many legends partly of truth and partly of fiction. Perhaps the best known of 579421—61 28 360 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1960 the great gems is the Regent or Pitt diamond, originally a rough stone of 410 carats which was cut down to 136 carats in polishing. It was bought by Pitt, the Governor of Fort St. George, in Madras, for £20,000. He sold it to the Regent of France for £135,000. It disappeared during the French Revolution, was returned, was used as security for loans from Holland, and finally Napoleon had it mounted on the hilt of his sword. It is now in the Louvre in Paris. The Orloff of 195 carats, a rose-colored diamond, is also well known. It was stolen by a French soldier from a Brahmin idol and was bought by Prince Orloff for £90,000 and is now in the Russian Treasury. The Shah of Persia (85 carats) is another great Eastern gem and is unique in having Arabic inscriptions on three of its faces. At one time it belonged to Shah Jehan who, it will be remembered, built the Taj Mahal. His son's name is inscribed on the face of the dia- mond and two of the other owners also had their names engraved on the diamond: a truly prodigious feat of the lapidary. Our knowl- edge of the history of many of these jewels is due to Ta vernier, who was bom in France at the start of the 17th century. He was a jewel merchant who traveled extensively in the East and who made careful observation of the great diamonds which were known at that time. One of the gems which he brought back to Europe on his return was the Blue Ta vernier. This stone was sold to the King of France; it was later cut up and the Hope diamond forms a part of it. A great deal of ill fortune has attended the owners of the Hope diamond and a tradition of superstition has grown up around the stone. It is now owned by Mr. Harry Winston, an American who is not superstitious." Probably the gi'eatest jewel which Tavernier saw on his travels was the Great Mogul (260 carats), which at that time was in the treasury of Aurangzeb, the last of the really strong Mogul emperors of India in 1665. By treacheiy this jewel came into the possession of Shah Jehan, whose son Aurangzeb overthrew his father and con- fined him to prison : he was captive at the time of Tavernier's visit and died soon after. With the death of Aurangzeb, the diamond dis- appeared and what happened to it is not known for certain. It was probably cut into two parts, one of which became the Koh-i-noor (meaning "the mountain of light") and under this name returned to India in the 19th century and was owned by Ranjit Singh, ruler of the Punjab. If the Koh-i-noor is indeed the Great Mogul, then 83 carats were lost in the 200 years of its disappearance. One of its owners in the interval had perhaps impoverished himself in time of •Editor's Notk. — In 1958 the Hope diamond was presented by Mr. Winston to the Smithsonian Institution, where It Is displayed to the public In the Institution's Museum of Natural History. DIAMONDS — LOGIE 361 war and had Imocked some pieces off the giant stone and sold them. The two flat planes from which these pieces had been detached were easy to see when the Koh-i-noor was in the possession of Ran jit Singh. Even what was left of the Great Mogul was still worth more than a million pomids at that time. In the war against the British, the Punjab was overrun and the Koh-i-noor fell into British hands. It was given for safekeeping to John Lawrence, later Governor-General of India, who kept it in a small tin box. For 6 weeks he forgot about it until it was needed as a gift for Queen Victoria. Then to his dismay the box could not be found. As a matter of fact it was still in the house. His Indian valet had found it while changing the contents of his master's pockets and, though he thought the diamond was a worthless piece of glass, he was too well trained to throw it away. There was a big fuss made about the Koh-i-noor when it arrived at Buckingham Palace. Even a tyro could see that it needed recutting and the question immediately arose as to who should do the job. England was singularly poor in cutters at the time and apparently everybody participated in the repolishing, for we are told : • ♦ * in consequence of the keen interest evidenced by Her Most Gracious Majesty tlie Queen and the Prince Consort, in the manipulation of this wonder- ful gem, Messrs. Garrard, the Queen's jewelers, had a room specially fitted up where Her Majesty personally assisted in putting on the facets. It is not surprising that the stone is still considered to be in bad shape. Tlie greatest of all diamonds comes from Cullinan. It was origi- nally 3,025% carats {ly^ pounds) , was found in 1907 and was given to Edward VII. It has been cut into 9 large stones of 516 carats, 309 carats, and 7 others of less than 100 carats each and into many smaller ones. The two largest portions of the Cullinan diamond are still the biggest diamonds in existence. The Cullinan is the largest diamond to come from South Africa, but a great deal of fascinating history is associated with even the smaller stones which have been found in this country. Nobody knows for certain whether the first diamond was foimd in South Africa in 1866 or in 1867. We are not sure either whether it was Schalk van Niekerk who first recognized the plaything of the Jacobs's children as a diamond, or whether it was Jack O'Reilly. An account of the event was given in 1932 by Erasmus Stephanus Jacobs. He said : • • * our family lived on the farm De Kalk on the south side of the Orange River in the district of Hopetown. One day a water pipe leading out of the dam became choked up and my father sent me out on the veld to cut a long branch in order to clear the pipe. Having secured what I wanted, and feeling somewhat tired, I sat down in the shade of a tree, when I suddenly noticed in the glare of the strong sun a glittering pebble some yards away. I picked up the stone which lay a few hundred yards from the bank of the Orange River. 362 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 196 I put the pebble in my pocket and later gave it to my younger sister who put it with her playthings. Some months later my brother and I were playing a game called "Five Stones" and one of the stones was the diamond. Van Niekerk arrived during the game and greatly admired the stone and tried to scratch a windowpane with it. My mother noticed that van Niekerk had taken quite a fancy to this white stone and gave it to him, Schalk van Niekerk, who lived in a house on the Jacobs's property, was a divisional councilor; a sort of welfare officer appointed by the farmers of the Hopetown district. It is exasperating not to know whether Van Niekerk was on the lookout for diamonds or not or if this one just happened to catch his eye. Plis attempt to scratch the windowpane leads one to think that he believed the stone was a dia- mond; on the other hand, he sold it to O'Reilly for only a few pounds. Jack O'Reilly was a pedlar, a hunter, and a famous shot. Wliether or not Van Niekerk knew he was selling a diamond is not clear ; what is certain is that O'Reilly was convinced that he was buying one. He wrote his name on a windowpane, as seemed to be traditional, and sent the stone to Atherstone, a mineralogist living in Grahamstown. Atherstone seems to have consulted various people, including the Catholic Bishop, Richards, who wrote his name on a windowpane with the stone. Atherstone and Bishop Richards next tried a file which left the stone untouched, and they told O'Reilly that he really had a diamond. Eventually it was sold to the Governor of the Cape Colony, Sir Philip Wodehouse, for £500. Sir Philip had it shown at the Paris exhibition of 18G7. It is remembered as a clear blue- white stone of 211/4 carats, but what happened to it after Sir Philip's death is not kno^vn. O'Reilly's discovery was soon noised abroad and people all over South Africa began looking for diamonds. In time further discov- eries were made, and by 1869 the diamond rush was on. The diamond discovered by Jacobs was an alluvial stone. Water had carried it from its original source to its place of discovery. It probably had come a long way, because diamonds are formed only in the presence of great heat and great pressure : in fact, in the sort of conditions that occur in the crater or pipe of a volcano. A mass of molten rock released from the earth's core produces a number of min- erals as it cools and these crystallize out in concentrated form. Car- bon is one of these minerals, and under suitable conditions of tempera- ture and pressure it may crystallize to form diamonds. That a diamond is nothing more than carbon may be proved by heating one in an atmosphere of pure oxygen. It will burn to carbon dioxide without any residue. Under slightly different conditions these self- same carbon atoms may crystallize into graphite instead of into diamond. The two forms, diamond and graphite, are said to be poly- DIAMONDS — LOGIE 363 Figure 1. morphic, and a comparison of the properties of the two helps us to understand what is important in determining those properties. Diamond has a density of 3.51 g./cc. against 2.25 g./cc. for graph- ite, so that the carbon atoms are not packed together as closely in graphite as they are in diamond. The X-ray analysis has confirmed a structural difference between the two. Diamond crystallizes in a cubic system with each atom symmetrically surrounded by four close neighbors, all at the same distance and arranged at the corners of a regular tetrahedron. (See fig. 1.) Diamond may also be thought of as two interpenetrating face-centered cubic lattices, one of which is displaced relative to the other by a quarter of the distance along the main diagonal (fig. 2) . The angle which the bonds between the atoms make with each other is 109°28'. Both the strength of the bonds and their direction influence the properties of the material. The melting point of substances is largely determined by the directed nature of the forces between atoms, and where they are as strictly directed as in the case of the diamond, there the melting point of the substance is very high. In ionic crystals, where the bonds are not strictly directed and the forces merely require that there shall be a great number of oppo- sitely charged ions close to each other, the melting point is low. In metals, we find frequently a tendency for each atom in the crystal to gather romid it the greatest possible number of nearest neighbors (12) 364 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 19 60 Figure 2. resulting in close-packed structures with not too rigidly fixed angles and comparatively low melting points, because in the liquid state the number of neighboring atoms has not greatly changed and tliey do not have to be in particular directions with respect to each other. Graphite crystallizes in the hexagonal system; the atoms are ar- ranged in layers; within each layer the pattern is not greatly differ- ent from the arrangement in diamond, but the layers are separated by comparatively large distances (fig. 3). It is this cliange in the atomic arrangement that makes graphite a good lubricant, for the layers can slip over one another under the action of weak binding forces. It is also this change in spacing which accounts for the fact that graphite is a conductor of electricity while diamond is an insu- lator; it accomits also for the opaque black color, the lower density and the different thermal conductivities of the two substances. In the diamond the spacing between layers is 1.54 A. In the case of graphite it is 3.35 A. This small difference is responsible for the distinctive physical properties of the two substances. It is charac- teristic of the diamond, as we shall see, that small effects produce results out of all proportion. Wliile comparing graphite and diamond, there are two paradoxes worthy of mention. First, one would imagine that the hard dia- mond is the more stable structure. In fact, it is the other way about DIAMONDS — LOGIE 365 Figure 3. at room temperature. The diamond is the preferred structure in a region where the pressure is above 20,000 atmospheres, or about 300,000 p.s.i., while graphite is the preferred structure at normal conditions of pressure and temperature. It is the enormous pressures in the cooling magma of a volcano which is needed for the production of a diamond. In more precise terms, one would say that the ther- modynamic potential of gi'aphite is lower than that of diamond, and it follows that if any transformation is to take place at all, at room temperature it will be from diamond to graphite and not vice versa. But thermodynamic stability is not the same as mechanical stability, and although diamond has a thermodynamic permission to transform itself into graphite, it has no mandate to do so. My wife has worn her engagement ring these many years with no solicitude on that score. The second strange fact is, that althougli diamond has a density of 3.5 g./cc. and is the hardest known substance, its atoms are not packed in the closest possible geometrical arrangement. It would be much denser if each atom were surrounded, not by 4, but by 12 other equidistant atoms as is the case for many metallic substances. In fact, by packing spheres together in the diamond structure, only 46 percent of the available space is used. We would describe the diamond lattice as having a very open structure. It was this fact that led us to attempt a few months ago to diffuse impurity atoms into the diamond. The idea was that by heating the diamond to several hundred degrees centigrade in a vacuum and while it was embedded in a material like boron which has a small 366 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1960 atomic radius, some of the boron atoms might diffuse into the holes in the diamond. I doubt whether we were successful in these attempts, but we did find that using carbon instead of boron led to an interesting effect. After being heated in this way it was found that when a voltage was applied to the crystal, it glowed with a bright green color. This is a quite new electroluminescent effect which diamonds do not normally show. The precise mechanism involved in the production of light is not clear, and with all our other interests we have had to put this aside for a future, less busy time. However, the effect itself is very beautiful. Several properties of the diamond and indeed of all solids are mainly controlled by the form of the lattice and its modes of vibra- tion. The specific heat is one of the best known in this respect. There are other properties, such as electrical conductivity, which are thought of as being mainly controlled by the electrons in the crystal. A di- vision such as this is more apparent than real, for of course there is always interaction between the lattice and the electrons, and the one affects the other. With this reservation, let us consider two properties. The first is thermal conductivity. Tliose who have handled large diamonds will have been struck by how cold a handful of them feel. Wool and felt are warm to the touch, metals are cold and diamonds are colder still. These feelings of warmth and of cold are because of the thermal conductivity of the material. A metal such as copper is a very good conductor of heat, but the thermal conductivity of diamond is four times as good at room temperature. Copper has a thermal conductivity of 4.1 watts/ cm. deg. K. and diamond 16 watts/cm. deg. K. If different parts of a solid are at different temperatures, then heat may be transferred from the hot to the cold parts by two processes. The transfer may be due to free electrons moving through the lattice, rather like con- vection currents in gases; or it may be due to vibrations or waves passing down the lattice, rather like heat transfer by radiation in a gas. The waves traveling through the lattice are referred to as phonons, and the whole structure behaves, as Kathleen Lonsdale has remarked, like granadilla pips wobbling in a soft jelly. In the case of copper there are large numbers of electrons freely available in tlie crystal to participate in the conduction of heat, but for the diamond, none of the electrons are free and we are left with the lattice vibra- tions as the mode of heat transfer. In a gas the thermal conductivity is given by the expression s=CuL/Z, where G is the heat capacity of unit volume, u is the aver- age particle velocity and L is tlie mean free path of a particle be- tween collisions. The idea of a mean free path for particles has been DIAMONDS — LOGIE 367 carried over to the solid where it is applied to the phonons. The magnitude of L is determined by the scattering of phonons at the bomidary of the crystal or by interaction with other phonons or by scattering at imperfections in the lattice. If the forces between atoms were purely harmonic, there would be no mechanism for collision between the phonons, and the mean free path in a perfect crystal would be limited solely by tlie size of the crystal. Because the thermal conductivity is so high we conclude that there are few imi^erfections in the crystal and further that the lattice vibrations are predominantly harmonic. This has other consequences. By the statement that the oscillations are purely harmonic, we mean two things : (1) That the forces are proportional to the displacement of the nuclei; and (2) That all displacements of electric charges are proportional to the displacement of the nuclei. Anharmonicity, that is lack of harmonicity, may accordingly be due to two things. First, the proportionality between nuclear displace- ments and restoring forces may not be satisfied. In this case we talk about mechanical anharmonicity. Or deviations may exist from the proportionality between nuclear displacements and the accompanying changes in the dipole moment. In this case there exists an electrical anharmonicity. Tlie diamond shows neither of tliese effects and this has important consequences in the optical behavior of the crystal. Infrared absorption is another property of a solid which depends on the vibration of the lattice. When light passes through a crystal it may lose energy by settmg the atoms in motion, and strong absorp- tion of the light occurs when its frequency is the same as the natural frequency of the lattice. Besides this requirement, absorption will occur only if the oscillations are not completely symmetrical m a given unit cell of the lattice. If the center of gravity of the cell does not change during an oscillation, then the opposite displacements of the atoms in the cell give rise to opposite values of radiated electric and magnetic fields, and the sum total of the field intensity in the radiation is zero. In a recent paper by Burstein, Picus, and Sclar,^ they point out that the diamond structure, consisting as it does of two identical interpenetrating face-centered cubic lattices, one of which is displaced relative to the other, will be mf rared mactive because of the symmetrical considerations. The history of the experiments and theory on the infrared absorp- tion by diamonds is not without its lighter moments. In 1907, Ein- stein was the first to make a fairly reliable estimate of the vibration * "Optical and photo-conductive properties of SI and Ge." Photoconductivity Confer- ence. New York, John Wiley, 1954. 368 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1960 spectrum of the diamond lattice. He predicted an absorption band at 8/i and although the basis of his calculation was not correct, neverthe- less an absorption band at 8/x was fomid by some observers. Others failed to find the band. This disagreement in observation proved to be a consequence of the fact that diamonds are of two types : one of these does indeed have an absorption band at this wavelength, while the other does not. The origin of the absorption is far from settled, but it is almost certainly due to causes other than lattice vibrations. What has been said so far is intended to give a picture of the be- havior and arrangement of the carbon atoms in the diamond. To understand why they are arranged in this way and to explain many of the electrical properties of the diamond, it is necessary to look a little more closely at the carbon atom itself and inquire into its elec- tronic structure. The element carbon has an atomic number 6. This means that it has six miits of positive charge on the nucleus and has six electrons moving in various orbits around the nucleus. It lies in the fourth column of the elements in the periodic table and has similar charac- teristics to silicon, germanium, tin, and lead, all of wliich belong to the same group. This seemingly diverse group of elements, which comprise two metals (tin and lead), two semiconductors (germanium and silicon), and diamond or graphite have one important attribute in common. They all have the same distribution of electrons in the outermost shells of the atom. In the case of carbon there are two electrons in the inner ^-shell wliich take no part in any interactions with other atoms. Farther away from the nucleus, the four remain- ing electrons are fairly loosely held in the outermost Z-shell. This outer shell is permitted by quantum conditions to accommodate eight electrons in all, so that the atom behaves as an element with four valence electrons and at the same time requires four more to complete the octet which fills the Z-shell. It is well known that atoms which have incomplete outer shells combine readily with other elements which have electrons that can be detached and fill the vacancies. The chemical combination of carbon with four hydrogen atoms, each of which release an electron, or of carbon and two atoms of oxygen, each of which releases two electrons to fill the outer shell, are very well known. All the elements of group 4 behave chemically in much the same way. Before we examine what happens to the electrons when we bring a number of carbon atoms together to form a crystal, it is necessary to consider the energy of the electrons in the free atom. The energy of an electron will depend in which orbit or shell it moves. If the elec- tron spends most of its time near the nucleus, then its energy is lower than if it is in the outer orbit. The distribution of electrons and their DIAMONDS — LOGIE 369 10 6 2 6D 7 P 7S 14 AF 10 5D 6 6P 2 6S 10 6 2 4D 5P 5 S 10 6 2 3D 4P 4S 6 2 3P 35 2P 2 S 1 S Figure 4. (G.2) (5,1) (5.0) (4.3) (5,2) (6,1) (6,0) (4,2) (5.1) (5,0) (3 2 (4,'l (4,0) (3,1) (3,0) (2,1) (2,0) (1.0) respective energies are shown in figure 4. The orbit closest to the nucleus can have two electrons in it ; then there is a fairly large energy gap and we come to a pair of orbits which together are known as the Z-shell and which can accommodate eight electrons. Again there is a fairly wide energy gap before we come to the next group of possible orbits and so on. The two important points to appreciate at this stage are, first, that only certain energy levels are possible and between these levels there are energy values which are "forbidden," and second, that the closer an electron is to the nucleus, the lower is its energy. As the carbon atoms are brought together to form a crystal, one can imagine the competition for the possession of electrons to fill the shells. An elegant compromise is reached. Each carbon atom takes four neighbors and shares an electron with each of them. A con- tribution of one electron from each atom will be found along the line joining two of them together. Every atom is now surrounded by 370 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1960 Figure 5. eight electrons and in this way the outer shells are filled, as is shown diagrammatically in figure 5. Bonding such as this, where a valence electron from one atom is shared with the adjacent atom, is called covalent bonding. It is unportant to notice that all the valence elec- trons are held in the bonds and none are free to move. This kind of tetragonal structure is common to diamond, germanium, silicon, and certain forms of tin. Wo consider next why the diamond has such great cohesive strength and why silicon and germanimn are much softer although their crys- tal structures are the same. A comparison of the physical properties of these three substances is shown in table 1. Table 1 Melting point (° C.) Dielectric constant Energy gap (eV) c„ Ci2 (10" dynes/cm.) c Si Ge 3, 550 1,420 936 5.7 12 IG 5.6 1.21 .79 9.2 .67 1.30 3.9 .65 . 49 4.3 .80 .67 DIAMONDS — LOGIE 371 Some idea as to why there should be these differences in bond- ing energy can be gained by imagining the crystal to be assembled from a group of atoms which are initially far apart. We imagine the atoms to be brought closer and closer together until they are at the characteristic lattice spacing. Binding energy, wliich is so large in the case of the diamond, comes about because the electrons lower their energy as the atoms get closer. It was shown earlier that the energy of the electrons was less if they were closer to the nucleus, and this is precisely what happens when the atoms are brought together to form a solid. The valence electrons in the crystal are never very far from some atomic nucleus and their potential energy is thus much reduced. They are making better use of the positively charged cores by staying closer to them. While the potential energy has been lowered, what has happened to the kinetic energy? All the valence electrons caiuiot have zero kinetic energy without violating the exclusion principle. This princi- ple states simply that no two electrons may occupy one and the same quantum state. If it were not for a law of this nature, all the electrons would drop to the lowest energy level and the structure of the periodic table, the diversity of the elements, and this audience would not exist. In order to dispose of all the valence electrons in the crystal and yet have at most one electron per quantum state, a large range of momenta and therefore of kinetic energies must be f oimd among the electrons. The band of energy states required to accommodate the electrons and the number of states which are occupied can be calculated using Fermi-Dirac statistics. The average kinetic energy per electron then turns out to be somewhat larger in the solid than in the gas. However, there still remains a net loss of energy for the atom as a whole. The binding forces arise then because the gain of kinetic energy does not completely offset the loss of potential energy. The net change is greater if the difference in the size of the atom and of the ion core is large. This explains the difference in the cohesive energy of the group IV elements and the fact that the binding energies are lowered as the atomic number is increased. It has been remarked that the bonding in diamond is covalent. In the simplest terms, this means that a valence electron from one atom is shared with the adjacent atom and none of them is free to move through the crystal. The situation is usually represented by an energy band diagram lil^e figure 6. Each band represents a group of closely spaced energy states in which the electrons may be. These energy bands have their counterpart in the discrete energy levels of the free atom. Just as the quantum conditions allow only certain widely separated energy levels in the atom, so also there are energy bands in the crystal which are separated from one another by "for- 372 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 19 60 Figure 6. bidden" energy gaps. As the atoms are brought together to form the crystal, the discrete energy levels in the atom spread out into energy bands, and the electrons are distributed among the possible energy levels in accordance with the exclusion principle and according to the statistical distribution of Fermi. The uppermost band is called the conduction band, while the next lower is called the valence band. For the energy of an electron to be changed, there must be an un- occupied level into which it may go. In the case of the diamond, the conduction band is empty and all the electrons are in the valence band and occupy all the possible states in that band. There are no unoccupied states in the lower band and consequently there is no possibility of small changes of energy being imparted to an electron. The closest unoccupied state is at the bottom to the conduction band and an energy of at least Eg must be imparted to the electron to effect tliis transition. The situation in this respect may be likened to a theater with a gallery. The seats represent the possible energy states and these are at two levels. The audience represents the elec- trons. If a seat has been reserved in the stalls, then quite a lot of energy is needed to obtain a transfer to the circle. In the cjise of the diamond, all the stall seats are full and all the circle seats are empty. DIAMONDS — LOGIE 373 In addition, the height of the circle above the grornid floor is large in comparison with most other materials which we nonnally encounter. Interpreted in another way, it means that all the electrons are firmly held in the covalent bonds and considerable energy is required to release them. This aspect of the diamond structure has been dwelt on at some length, but it is fundamental to an understanding of many processes in diamonds. "VVliile the general picture which has been given here of the band structure of solids is generally followed by all materials, the details for various substances differ, and in particular the energy separation of the two bands is different and this profoundly affects the proper- ties of the substance. In what follows we shall be mainly concerned with the passage of electrical currents and it is important to look into this aspect further. The conduction of electricity in most of the processes which are en- countered daily is due to the motion of electrons. Not all materials have the ability to conduct electricity, and solids have been divided into three categories. Wlien there are electrons free to move about in the crystal, we have a conductor. Metals fall into this categoiy. Wlien there is no freedom of movement for the electrons, then the sub- stance is called an insulator. There is an intermediate group of ma- terials known as semiconductors, which become conductors only mider certain conditions of temperature and purity. In the case of dia- monds, one anticipates that they will behave as an insulator because all the available electrons are closely bound to the atoms and none can move about under the influence of an applied electric field. In order that a current should flow, some of the electrons must be made to move from their association with a given pair of atoms and be permitted to wander through the ci-ystal. The question at once arises. How firmly are these electrons held? The answer is to be found in the band energy diagram of figure 6, which shows a forbidden energy gap of about 6 eV. If we think of the theater analogy again, the situation is that all the stall seats are full and for a person to move from one position to another (which would correspond to a flow of current) is not possible. The only way that freedom of movement can be acliieved is by transferring one or more people to the gallery. These people in the almost empty gallery can now move about freely and at the same time the vacancies which now exist in the stalls enable an exchange of seats to take place there also. If one seat is vacant, for example, then as a general exchange of seats takes place, the appearance would be that of a vacant seat moving about from one position to another in the auditorium. Both these processes have their counterj^art in what happens in crystals of the diamond type. Events in the gallery where an electron is thought to be moving in the conduction band are spoken 374 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 19 60 of as conduction by electrons. The apparent motion of the seat left vacant in the stalls corresponds to conduction by "positive holes." It was pointed out earlier that carbon, silicon, germanium, tin, and lead all belong in the same column of the periodic table. The first three have identical crystal structures, but behave very differently electrically. Diamond is the insulator. It has an energy gap of about 6 eV. Silicon has a gap of 1.1 eV, in gennanium the gap is 0.72 eV, in gray tin 0.1 eV, and in white tin and lead the energy bands overlap so that there is no forbidden energy region and they are good conductoi-s. The different conducting properties of graphite and diamond are now capable of interpretation. The largest atomic separation for graphite between nearest neighbors is that between the platelike layers which are shown in figure 3. This separation is 1.54 A for diamond, and for graphite the separation is 3.35 A. The average spacing in graphite is larger and corresponds to a region in which the energy bands overlap and the graphite behaves like a metal. Thinking in terms of the electron bonding, it is observed that in graphite the four valence electrons are shared by three nearest neighbors in one of the sheets of atoms. On the average, each atom can thus contribute part of an electron which is free to wander through the crystal and participate in electrical conduction. As will be shown presently, though most diamonds are insulators, others are conductors and, by suitable treatment, all of them can be made conductors. To explain this, we inquire now into some of the possible ways in which electrons can be moved from the lower filled band into the upper empty one so that conduction becomes possible. First there is the possibility that by heating the material an electron may be given sufficient energy to jump the gap. On substituting values for h^ Boltzmann's constant, in the relation E=hT, it is found that to impart 1 electron volt would require temperatures of 10,000° centigrade. This method is clearly not applicable in the case of pure diamonds, but it does play an important part in semiconductors where the gap between the energy bands is much less than is the case for diamonds. The second possibility is that light waves or photons could impart the required energy. Wlien this happens, it is spoken of as photo- conductivity. Using the Einstein relation E=1ig/\^ the photon energy of visible light is found to lie between 1.6 eV at the red end of the spectrum and 3.2 eV in the blue. For the energy gap of diamond, light of wavelength 2,200 A or less is required. This wavelength is in the ultraviolet region. The electron ejected by this means is now in the conduction band. If an electric field is applied to the crystal, the electron drifts in the direction of the applied field and carries a current. The vacant space from which the electron came constitutes DIAMONDS — LOGIE 375 a localized positive hole which can move by reciprocal motion of thermally activated electrons in the valence band, and also contributes to the current. If the source of illumination is removed, the photo- conductivity dies away by the recombination of electrons and holes. A certain amount of energy must be given up when this recombination occurs and may take several forms. One possible form is an increase in the temperature of the diamond. Another possibility is that when the electron and hole recombine, they may do so with the emission of visible light. This is spoken of as luminescence, but in pure diamonds this process will not occur. If the light falling on the diamond has a wavelength in the ultra- violet, the electrons will acquire energy from the beam of light. We say that the light has been absorbed and that the diamond has an absorption band in the neighborhood of 2,200 A. No absorption will occur for wavelengths longer than this, and no absorption in the visi- ble part of the spectrum is anticipated. This means that if we start with white light, it should remain white after passing through the diamond. We are thus led to expect that all diamonds should be pure white, with no absorption bands to produce color in the visible part of the spectrum. A third method of producing conductivity is by bombarding the crystal with small but energetic particles like electrons or alpha par- ticles. Wlien these impinge on the crystal, they collide with the elec- trons already present and remove them from their covalent bonds. As before, conduction by electrons and holes becomes possible. If the source of the energetic particles is a radioactive material, then each alpha, beta, or gamma ray of sufficient energy may release several hundred electrons into the conduction band, and the effect is a short- pulse of current for each incident particle. The following properties of the diamond are expected on the basis of the above reasoning: it should be an insulator; it should be pure white ; and it should show no luminescence and no photoconductivity for wavelengths greater than 2,200 A. The actual behavior is in strik- ing contrast to these predictions. We know that diamonds often are colored, that some of them do show luminescence, that they are some- times conductors, and that they do have photoconductive properties when illuminated by white light. In short, if there is one fact which is very soon apparent to anyone investigating the properties of the diamond, it is that each stone seems to have a quality of its own. Some attempt has been made to group certain types of diamonds together according to their properties. This scheme is helpful, but there is no sharp boundary between one group and another. The first classifi- cation divides diamonds into type 1 and type 2, according to whether 579421—61 29 376 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 196 the ultraviolet absorption becomes pronounced at wavelengths near 3,000 X or near the theoretically expected 2,200 A, respectively. All types show some infrared absorption and both show luminescence, though it is more marked in type 1 than in type 2. Often neither type is a perfect insulator, though their respective resistivities may be as high as 10^* ohm cm. Then there are type 2 diamonds which are colored and some which are good conductors. These latter were classi- fied by Dr. Custers as type 26, so that type 2a is reserved for diamonds with ultraviolet absorption at 2,200 A which are insulators. The divergence between the predicted properties and those which are actually realized is so marked that obviously there are other factors which have not yet been taken into account. "Where the theory has been at fault is in leaving the energy gap between the valence band and the conduction band completely free of energy levels. As soon as it is accepted that some electrons may require less than 6 eV to reach the conduction band, then all the difficulties are removed. How can such a situation arise ? It is now fairly clear that traces of impurities or defects in the lattice will produce just this effect. Im- perfections of this kind, in concentrations as low as 1 part in 10 mil- lion, will explain all the anomalies. Instead of dealing with each of the phenomena in turn, let us follow the investigations which have been made in our laboratories into the conductivity induced by alpha or beta particle bombardment of the crystal. As we consider the effects, I believe that a general under- standing of most of the other phenomena will emerge. It has long been known that certain crystals when bombarded by energetic particles are made temporarily conducting. The pioneer work in this field was done by Van Heerden and, from what has been said earlier, the effect of bombarding the diamond is to raise electrons from the valence band to the conduction band. If an electric field is applied to the diamond, it will sweep these electrons and holes toward the electrodes so that each incoming particle results in a pulse of current. We see that the diamond behaves very much like a Geiger counter. In fact it has several advantages over a conventional Geiger tube. Its density is high so that the stopping power of the diamond is 3,000 times that of a gas. In other words, a 1 MeY beta particle which would travel through a meter of air will expend all its energy in 1 mm. of diamond. One cubic mm. of diamond is then as effective as several cubic centimetei-s of Geiger tube and is well suited to appli- cation where a small probe is necessary. The medical field is an example which immediately comes to mind. Diamond has an ex- tremely fast resolving time and can distinguish particles arriving at intervals of lO"* sec. It is thus capable of counting at the rate of DIAMONDS — LOGIE 377 100 million particles per second. The energy to form an electron hole is about 6 eV, compared to 30 eV to produce ionization in air. It can count alpha, beta, and gamma particles of high energy as efficiently as a large Geiger counter. All this is on the credit side. There are also drawbacks, perhaps the most serious, and certainly at first sight the most surprising of whicli, is that only a very small percentage of diamonds make good counters. Even among those that do count, there is a wide diver- gence in performance. Considerable attention has been paid by Champion, Dyer, Ditchburn, Willardson, and others to the correla- tion between the counting ability and other physical properties. Those diamonds whose absorption band is less than 2,500 A are the most likely to have comiting properties. Not all of them do, and of course there are some diamonds of type 1 wliich are counters also. The diamonds we have been using in this lecture are, in fact, type 1. Champion believes that counting diamonds are those wliich are com- posed of layers of highly perfect crystalline material separated by much thiimer barriers of imperfect material. Again, diamonds which fluoresce are not likely to be good counters, though it does not follow that nonfluorescing diamonds are sure to count. There is fewer than one diamond in a thousand which can be classified as a good counter. The second defect of the diamond counter is due to what has been termed "polarization." Many diamonds, even though they are good counters when they are first bombarded, lose their efficiency if the bombardment is continued. By giving the diamond a rest or by heating it or, sometimes, by irradiating it with ultraviolet light or gamma or beta radiation, it will recover its initial ability. It is now time to turn to the modifications which result from defects or impurities in the diamond. The effect of these can easily be shown experimentally. One way of producing a defect in a dia- mond is to bombard it with neutrons. These neutrons are much heavier than electrons, and when they collide with a carbon atom in the lattice they knock it out of position. This kind of defect is called a vacancy. The electron bonds at this point in the crystal have been altered by the vacancy and the ease with which electrons at that point can be liberated and transferred to the conduction band has been changed; i.e., an energy level intermediate between the valence and conducting bands has been created. Diamonds which have been treated in this way show very marked changes in their properties. Wliite diamonds become green and counting diamonds lose this ability. There are three kinds of imperfections which may occur in crystals and are of interest to us. These are : 1. Vacancies such as those which have just been described. 378 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 19 60 2. Interstitials, when a carbon atom is displaced tx) some location between the atoms of an already complete lattice. The diamond lattice offers a relatively large amount of space for these interstitials. 3. Impurities, when a foreign atom replaces the normal carbon atom at one of the lattice sites. If these defects form a small percentage of the possible lattice sites, then the energy diagram is represented as in figure 7. An energy level like the one at F in the diagram might be due to an impurity atom, such as areenic which has five valence electrons instead of four. Four of these electrons will be found in the covalent bonds between neighboring atoms, while the fifth will be rather loosely bound to the nucleus. A small increment of energy will remove this electron, and since there are no bonds which it can enter, it will constitute a mobile negative charge. The band picture places the impurity level F fairly close to the conduction band. A small amount of additional energy is sufficient to raise it to the conduction band, when it will be free to move through the crystal. It leaves behind it a positively charged center which, in due time, may capture another electron and return to its original condition. An impurity of this kind, which may lose an electron and thus become a positive "trapped" hole, is called a donor impurity. There are also acceptor impurities which have impurity levels near the valence band. Such impurities may be boron, for example, which has only three valence electrons and readily captures a fourth to complete the covalent bonds. It requires only a small amount of energy to raise an electron from the valence band into an acceptor level. The empty level left behind in the valence band is a mobile hole and the electron has become "trapped" at t\\Q impurity. This electron may fall back into the valence band again, recombine with a hole, and so complete the cycle. In some materials the donor and acceptor levels may be so close to the band edges that thermal energy even at room temperature is sufTicient to ionize them. The donora give up electrons to the conduction band and the acceptors liberate holes in the valence band so that electrical conduction is possible. The material is no longer an insulator but a semiconductor. In the type 26 diamonds, it is the acceptors which are close to the valence band and which make the material a semiconductor. If the impurity levels are more than about one electron volt from the band edges, then thermal effects are ineffective in inducing conductivity. With these intermediate energy levels and the possibility of trap- ping electrons and holes at the impurity sites, a great flexibility is introduced into the theory of the properties of solids. Many of the optical properties can be explained. The energy at which absorption will occur is no longer determined by the width of the gap between the valence and conduction bands, but by the kind and number of 379 "^donors -O- -0- 7///// /Z^VALENCE BAND Figure 7. impurities present. It is impurities wliicli change the color of the diamond by introducing energy levels at various heights. Lumi- nescence is likewise due to the type of impurity in the crystal, and photoconductivity can be understood as an electron exchange between the bands and the impurity levels. The behavior of a diamond when used as a counter is also controlled by the number and kind of impurity. There are about 10" in a cubic centimeter of material. Since there are 10^^ carbon atoms in this volume, the impurity concentration is one per million. What is of interest is to know at what levels these impurities lie and how one dia- mond differs from another in this respect. To investigate the energy levels, we have been using beta particles from a Sr^° source and then making a systematic survey of the effect of illumination on the counting rate. A very small hole is made in one of the electrodes and the diamond is irradiated through the hole wdth beta particles and with a field strength of 10* volts/centimeter. A typical counting rate under these conditions is 100 pulses per second. The energy of the beta par- ticle is 2.2 MeV, so that each beta is likely to produce 4 X 10^ electron hole pairs, and a little calculation, taking into account the size of the 380 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1960 diamond, shows that we are then dealing with about 10,000 million electrons per square centimeter sweeping through the crystal. They are moving with a velocity of 10^ cm./sec. and each one is likely to collide with the atoms of the lattice about a million times before being trapped at one of the impurities. Under the influence of the applied electric field, they will have migrated about 0.1 to 1 mm., before being trapped. The passage of the electrons through the crystal can be likened to billiard balls moving across a very unorthodox billiard table which has not six pockets into which the balls can fall but hundreds scattered at random across the baize. If, in addition, we imagine that the table is hinged at one end and raised at the other, then the slope on the table will be analogous to the effect of the electric field. As the pockets are filled we must imagine the slope on the table to be reduced in just the way that trapped charges reduce the effective electric field by building up an internal space charge. Only a veiy small proportion of the traps are occupied in the crys- tal, and even if free electrons are continually generated at the rate of 10,000 million per second, it would require the best part of a year to fill all the traps. The energy of the beta particles is such that some of them can penetrate right through the small diamonds which we have been using, but the majority of the electron hole pairs are pro- duced fairly close to the electrode through which the particles enter. It is obsen^ed that the counting rate, or — what is the same thing — the number of free electrons contributing to the voltage pulses, is not maintained at its initial level. If the experiment is done in darkness, then, after 10 or 15 minutes, the counting rate has dropped to about one-half where it remains steady. To explain this, let us look at the factors controlling the counting rate. In a given diamond it will depend on three things : 1. The number of electrons and holes produced by each incident particle. 2. The value of the electric field in the diamond. 3. The length of time the electrons spend in the conduction band before recombining with a positive hole. This length of time is called the lifetime. The longer the electron is free to drift through the crystal, the larger is the output pulse ob- tained. Without impurities the lifetime would be long, because re- combinations between electrons and holes will seldom occur by direct collision. A certain energy is required to produce the electron-hole pair, and when they recombine, the energy must be dissipated in the form of irradiation. For the recombination to occur, the electron and hole must be within 2 A of each other. The characteristic time for radiation is about 10"^ sec, which is longer than the time for which the pair are close enough to interact. It is much more probable that DIAMONDS — LOGIE 381 the trapping occurs at impurity centers. The lifetime will then be proportional to the concentration of these. The falling off in the counting rate must be due to a lowering of the effective electric field inside the diamond. It cannot be due to a change in the niunber of electrons produced by each beta particle, nor is the lifetime likely to be altered since the number of traps changes very little. What happens is that the trapped electrons or holes pro- duce a space charge in the diamond which has the effect of reducing the electric field. Not many trapped electrons are required to do this. If only 1 trap in 10 million is filled with electrons, it is sufficient to reduce the internal field to zero in the most favorable conditions, but the precise effect will depend on the position of the center of gravity of the space charge. To discover whether a space charge is really produced, the external field was removed when polarization had been established and pulses obtained in the reverse sense were recorded. The diamond continues to count mider these circumstances for a few minutes and until the space charge is reduced to a very low value. If the diamond is not bombarded and no electric field is applied, the space charge may persist for a very long time. We have observed it over a period of days. It will be appreciated that the diamond has to be carefully prepared to msure that no residual space charge remains when a series of tests is to be conducted. The pro- cedure which we have found to be the most satisfactory is to irradiate the diamond for 12 hours with no field applied and in the dark before starting an experiment. By this means sufficient free holes and elec- trons are generated to achieve the equivalent of thermal equilibrium. Only when these precautions are taken are the results reproducible. Electrons can enter and leave the diamond fairly readily through the electrodes if the diamond has been activated so as to produce free electrons and holes. No particular precautions are necessary to make good contact between the diamond and the metal electrodes applied to it. In fact, if it is suspended on a thread between two metal elec- trodes, but touching only one of them, then the diamond is found to become charged. The process is quite a slow one and depends on the intensity of the irradiation which, in turn, controls the number of electrons in the conduction band. A diamond suspended in this way is found to swing from one electrode to the other and then back again when it has acquired charge of the opposite polarity. Let us return to the conventional arrangement of the diamond be- tween two electrodes, and with beta particles entering through a hole in the anode. Most of the free electrons will reach the anode before being trapped, because the electron pairs are produced fairly close to this electrode. The holes, on the other hand, which have to traverse the few millimeters to the cathode are likely to have most of their 382 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 19 60 number trapped before they reach it. These trapped holes establish a space charge which reduces the electric field in the region where the electron hole pairs are produced. Eventually equilibrium is estab- lished when the number of holes which reach the cathode is exactly equal to the number of electrons leaving the crystal. The counting rate is now uniform but at a lower level than initially. Now, what happens if we use infrared light on the diamond? It is found that a polarized diamond at once shows an improvement ; the comiting rate rises until it is restored to its original value. The same effects are produced as light of shorter and shorter wavelength, i.e., of increas- ing energy, is used, until at about 6,500 A a new phenomenon pre- sents itself. Instead of improving the counting rate, light of this energy, or greater, reduces the counting rate. This is the main evi- dence for two levels of impm-ities, one of which is essentially a hole trap, and the other an electron trap. Further information is obtained by irradiating the diamond through the negative electrode. With this arrangement it is the holes which can reach the cathode because of its proximity, while the elec- trons are trapped as they move toward the anode. The counting rate, the establishment of the polarizing field, and the eventual equilibrium counting rate is found to be much the same as before. It is thus con- cluded that the density of electron traps and of hole traps is much the same. Much of the so-called progress in science consists of gathering a few scraps of information and on the basis of these to give one's imagina- tion full rein and so develop a model — a picture — of what is taking place and which will explain the observations. On the basis of this physical model, predictions can usually be made about what may hap- pen imder a difi'erent set of experimental conditions. We try these new conditions and sometimes receive confirmation of the hypotheses and sometimes see that they must be modified. It is even more fas- cinating than putting together the pieces of a jigsaw puzzle or solving a crossword. Omitting the many wrong turnings we made, the following band picture is suggested as best satisfying the results. Near the bottom of the band there are acceptor energy levels, aU of which are occupied by electrons. This set of energy levels is probably between 0.8 and 1.2 eV above the valence band. Higher up are a set of donor levels, the greater majority of which have lost their electrons to the acceptors. The energy of this band is about 2.0 eV above the valence band or it might be at 2.0 eV below the conduction band. This point remains to be clarified and the two cases cannot be distinguished at present. In semiconductor parlance, it would appear that the counting diamonds are p-type when they are activated. 'Wlien the beta irradiation enters DIAMONDS — LOGIE 383 at the anode, the holes are trapped mainly in the acceptor levels and the space charge is developed. Subsequent infrared radiation raises electrons from the valence band to these levels occupied by the holes and so reduces the space charge. This explains why the counting rate improves under illumination. If the diamond is bombarded through the cathode, then the electrons are trapped in the empty levels of the donor states. The energies at which these lie are so far from the band edges that infrared light can effect no change in the space charge. This is one of the first tests that was made on the correctness of these ideas and which agreed with the predictions. It also clears up a matter over which disagreement has arisen between experimenters. Some writers have found that infrared improves the counting ability, some that it makes no difference, while yet others reported that it reduced the counting rate. None mentions the electrode through which the diamond was irradiated and which as we now see determines the precise effect. A reduction in the counting rate can easily be imagined if the diamond is bombarded through the negative electrode and had not been carefully prepared beforehand to insure equilibrium condi- tions with electrons in the lowest permitted energy levels. When we come to consider the effect of radiation of higher fre- quency which has sufScient energy to produce transitions to the donor levels from the valence band, our predictions are more tentative. If the effect is to empty a large number of these of their electrons, then a negative space charge will develop and will assume a density in the crystal which is a function of the distance from the anode and thus reduce the effective field considerably and over a large part of the crystal. In fact, instead of about one trap per million being involved in the creation of the space charge as we saw was the case under beta bombardment alone, all of them could now be activated by tlie high- energy illumination and could swamp the lesser effect of the bombard- ment. The high-energy light has the same general etTect on the count- ing rate whether the beta bombardment is through the anode or through the cathode. On an occasion such as this, the speaker is expected to leave his audience feeling that all has been explained, all is known; that the speaker is master of tlie entire gamut of loiowledge. I am afraid that in this respect I must be found sadly wanting, and to one important question I have no answer. I cannot tell you why some diamonds are counters and others are not. However, the interplay of theory and experiment proceeds and I hope that my successor in his inaugl^ral address will express his amazement that we could have been so igno- rant of what will then be so well understood. Seeing the Magnetization in Transparent Magnetic Crystals By J. F. Dillon, Jr. Bell Telephone Laboratories, Inc. Murray Hill, NJ. [With 8 plates] The metallic magnetic materials iron, nickel, cobalt, and their alloys are within the everyday experience of us all. However, magnetic ma- terials that are not metallic have been the subject of a great deal of study in the past 15 or 20 years. Those which have been most widely studied and used are mixed oxides ; i.e., oxides of two or more metals. The technological interest in these compounds arises from the fact that they are exceedingly poor conductors of electricity. Alternating mag- netic fields can penetrate them easily. This contrasts sharply with the magnetic metals in which alternating magnetic fields cause eddy currents to flow near the surfaces, and thus shield the body of the metal from the field. This effect becomes more pronounced as the alternat- ing frequency increases, and quite effectively prevents the use of the magnetic properties of the solid metals at ordinary radiofrequencies and above. We will concern ourselves in this paper with a particular class of mixed oxides, the ferrimagnetic garnets, which will transmit radiation up to frequencies in the optical range [1].^ This specializa- tion should not obscure the fact that there are a number of other trans- parent magnetic compounds [2]. The term "transparent" should be qualified. These crystals are transparent in that sections 0.005 inch thick or less transmit enough light for microscopic examination. The most satisfactory specimens are about 0.001 inch thick. The ferrimagnetic garnets were discovered only a few years ago [3, 4]. They have the same crystal structure as the minerals known as garnets; that is to say, they contain oxygen atoms and metal atoms in the same spatial arrangement. However, it should be clearly understood that compounds with the particular combinations of metal atoms with which we are concerned do not occur in nature. The chemical formula [5] of these compomids may be written 1 Numbers In brackets Indicate references at end of text. 385 386 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1960 -{M3}-[Fe2] (Fe04)3, where M stands for any one of the following ele- ments: yttrium, samarimn, europium, gadolinium, terbium, dyspro- sium, liolmium, erbium, thulium, ytterbium, or lutetimn. They are called yttrium (or samarium, etc.) iron garnet. In addition, there are a number of other elements which can be substituted in to some degree. Except for yttriimi, the metals just listed belong to a group Imown as the rare earths (or more explicitly as the 4f rare earths). These ele- ments possess remarkably similar chemical properties, and are in fact difficult to separate from each other chemically. STRUCTURE OF THE MAGNETIC GARNETS The manner in which we have chosen to write the chemical formula [4a] of the ferrimagnetic garnets ^MsJ-CFeo] (Fe04)3 is intended to convey some structural information. There are two kinds of sites on which iron ions are located in this structure. They may be at a posi- tion in which there are four nearest neighbors, oxygen ions. The centers of these oxygens define the vertices of a slightly distorted tetrahedron. These particular iron ions (in parentheses in the formula) are said to be on tetrahedral sites. For every three iron ions on tetrahedral sites, there are two on octahedral sites. These (in square brackets) are surromided by six nearest neighbor oxygen ions defining the vertices of a slightly distorted octahedron. Finally, the yttrium or rare earth ions (in braces) have eight nearest neighbors; these sites are called dodecahedral. All the iron ions in these crystals have a valence of 3, i.e., iron is present as Fe+ + +, and each has associated with it a magnetic moment. We may think of this as a small permanent magnet. Very powerful electrostatic forces called "exchange" forces act to aline the magnetic moments of these iron ions. At temperatures near absolute zero, all the moments of the tetrahedral ions are parallel ; all the moments of octahedral ions are parallel to each other but antiparallel to the tetrahedral ions. Since for every formula unit there are three tet- rahedral and two octahedral ions, the net magnetic moment of the ions in one formula is that of a single iron ion. The moment of a single trivalent iron ion is five times that of a single electron. These units are called Bohr magnetons. Thus, the magnetic moment of an Fe+ + + ion is 5 Bohr magnetons. Yttrium iron garnet at absolute zero has a magnetic moment of 5 Bohr magnetons for each formula as given above. However, the rare earth ions (except Lu) have a magnetic moment. The moments of the rare earth ions are alined so as to be approximately parallel to each other but antiparallel to the net moment of the iron ions. In several of the rare earth iron garnets at absolute zero, the rare earth magnetic moment is greater than that of the iron sublattice. MAGNETIZATION IN CRYSTALS — DILLON 387 It turns out that the temperature dependence [5] of the total iron magnetization is different from that of the total rare earth magnetiza- tion. The rare earth magnetization falls off faster with increasing temperature than the iron magnetization. Figure 1 shows how this leads to a magnetization versus temperature curve which changes sign with temperature. Let us say the moment is positive when it is parallel to that of the Fe+ + + on tetrahedral sites. In the case of yttrium iron garnet, the net moment is parallel to that of the three tetrahedrally coordinated Fe+ + + per foniiula unit and thus positive up to the Curie point, the temperature above which the magnetic moment is zero. In gadolinium iron garnet, on the other hand, the moment of the Gd+ + + ions overrides the net iron moment by a con- siderable factor. Plowever, as temperature increases, the Gd+ + + lattice moment falls off faster than that of the Fe+ + + lattice. At about 290° K. they are equal and the net spontaneous magnetic mo- ment is zero. Above this compensation point, the moment of the Fe+ + + lattice predominates. The spontaneous moment, that which would be observed in no applied magnetic field, finally decreases to zero at the Curie point. The Curie points of the f errimagnetic garnets are associated with the exchange coupling of the iron sublattices, and consequently are very nearly the same for all the ferrimagnetic garnets, about 560° K. CRYSTALS AND SAMPLES Plate 1 is intended to give some idea of the appearance of the crystals with which we work. In bulk they are shiny and black. In the crystals chosen for photographs, the faces are sharp, well de- fined, and very nearly flat. Occasionally a variation of the cooling cycle produces a run of crystals which have been etched in some degree by the same melt from which they were grown. There is a tendency for the crystals to be sound near the faces, but in many cases they contain inclusions of the oxide mixture from which they were grown. Sometimes the crystals are cracked. The shiny surfaces invariably have many small etch pits, which can only be seen on examination with a microscope. We might remark in passing that these crystals [6] are made by heating a mixture of iron sesquioxide (FcaOs) , lead oxide (PbO) , and the appropriate yttrimn or rare earth sesquioxide (M2O3) . This mix- ture is heated to about 1,350° C, well above the melting point, then cooled slowly. This is done with the mixture in a platinum crucible with a furnace whose temperature can be programed very accurately. The growth of crystals involves many difficulties. There are many variables to be controlled or to slip out of control. Large sound crystals are associated with slow cooling rates, uniform cooling rates. 388 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1960 < _j D 2 a. o u. a. D. 2 en z o H u -4 z o < 2 C -6 I o CO z - -8 z o < N-10 UJ Z o 1-2 -14 -16 -18 •20 /-IRON SUBLATTICE ■*■ — ^^ f ^ ^ ::^ ^-- — " ^^ y / y ^ 1 < / ^GADOLINIUM SUBLATTICE "a^gadolinium iron garnet 100 200 300 400 500 TEMPERATURE IN DEGREES KELVIN 600 FlGUR 8ubl crystal E 1. — The temperature variation of the magnetization of the iron and gadolinium attices in gadolinium iron garnet along with their sum, the net magnetization of the Adapted from Bertaut and Pauthenet (reference 5). MAGNETIZATION IN CRYSTALS — DILLON 389 and large melts. A run in which Nielsen [7] grew some of the large samples took about 3 or 4 weeks to cool. The platinum crucible held a melt weighing about 2 kg. Recently Dr. Lef ever of the Hughes Air- craft Co. has pointed out that crystals grown so as to be free of traces of silicon are markedly more transparent than any for which no special precautions have been taken [8]. The preparation of samples suitable to the observation of domains by transparent light is a delicate procedure. If possible, large sound ci-ystals are chosen and slices of the desired orientation are sawn off with a water-cooled circular diamond saw. These are, say, 0.015 to 0.020 inch in thickness. The slice is waxed down to a holder and polished. The block is heated, the sample reversed, and the opposite side is polished down to within the desired thickness of the first side. If the crystal is to be viewed without further treatment, the best thick- ness is about 0.001 inch thick. Sometimes a growth face has been left as one side of the finished specimen. Samples which are to be etched down to a convenient thickness after polishing are, of course, considerably thicker. The procedure used to polish a sample has been, and will surely continue to be, subject to improvements. It consists of grinding with a rather fine abrasive, American Optical Co. 3031/^ emery, well past the surface produced by any coarser abrasive. The polishing is done with a slurry of Linde A alumina with a particle size of 0.3 micron. About 0.002 inch of material is removed in this polishing past the bottom of the pits left by the 3031^ emery. In some variations of the procedure, diamond paste is used ; in some, great pains are taken to reduce the weight on the surface of the sample. OPTICAL PROPERTIES We must examine two optical properties in order to understand the visibility of the magnetic domains [9]. The first of these is the ab- sorption. Light entering a medium is attenuated exponentially with thickness. This is given by the Beer-Lambert law for the ratio of the intensity / after traversing a thickness t to the incident intensity /« I ' The constant a is called the absorption coefficient and it varies with wavelength. Figure 2 shows a in the visible portion of the spectrum. It is smallest at the red end of the visible, rises to a peak in the yellow, falls, then goes offscale upward in the green. A low value of a means a high fraction of the light is transmitted, and a high a means a small part is transmitted. For the thinnest samples we have been able to make, it has not been possible to get a measurable transmission for light much past the green shown on the plot. 390 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1960 2800 2400 2000 2 O Z 1600 z g I- Ql cr 9, 1200 < 800 400 1 c Li a ORANGE YELLOW "^ GREEN "* — ff ^ / / / / / / / / / / /"--" / /_ ^^#«^ 5000 2 o 4000 0: HI Q. I/) LU (U q: o 3000 y q: 2000 g 10 12 14 16 ENERGY IN CM"' 18 20X10- Figure 2. — The pertinent optical properties of yttrium iron garnet. The solid line is the absorption, and the dashed line, the rotation per centimeter of the plane of polarization of light passing through the crystal with the magnetization along the line of sight. Tho second optical property of interest is the rotation. If plane polarized light is incident on one of these thin samples, we fmd that on emergence the plane of polarization is rotated. But this rotation is of a very special sort : it is nonreciprocal. It depends on the orienta- tion of the magnetization within the part of the crystal through which the light passes. If the magnetization is parallel to the path of the light, the plane of polarization is rotated through some angle 6, but if the magnetization is antiparallel to the optical path, the angle is — 6. Finally, if the magnetization is perpendicular to the optical path, there is no rotation at all. To measure the specific rotation, then, we must aline all the magnetization within the sample and make it. Smithsonian Report. I960 -Dillon Plate l T. Dh Smithsonian Report, 1960 — Dillon Plate 2 |?:zr 2. Jm^m \f Photographs of a domain siiuclurc in which ihc magnetization hcs in the phuie in ihc upper half, and perpendicular lo the plane toward and away from the observer in the lower half. The three photographs correspond to the three settings of the analyzer in figure 3. Smithsonian Report. I %0— Dillon Pl-ATE 3 A color photograph of domains in an ytiriuni ir(.>ii garncl siiiylc crystal. The analy/.cr was somewhat off the setting which corresponded to extinction without llic cr\stal. This was taken hv W. \'andi\'ert for the Scienlific American under the author's direction. Smithsonian Report. 1960 -Dillon Plate 4 ANALYZER AXIS POLARIZER AXIS .01 INCH •••. B "^b. °°o R ^^^. ^^. =^0^ 109.5' X 70.6° I,.---' ^ \^i 70.6° /^^f, \| 109.5V^ '-'OOOOOOOOO Qp i 70.5^ r .' O W V "2 'fr .«>" .cf° B -,o" \ e>^ .rf' ,cP' Domain sliuclurc in a thin section of yttrium iron garnet, the crystal plane of which is perpendicular to the face diagonal. (See figure 6.) The contrast between the domains whose magnetization is parallel and not parallel to one of the polarizer analyzer axes arises from the magnetic birefringence. Smithsonian Report. I960— Dill Plate 5 A rcj.'ion in a .L'adoliiiuini iron K'HiK-'t- cr.wslal in wliicii llic mauncli/.alinn lies along iuan\' of the possible body diagonal preferred directions. 'I'he plane of llie cr\stal is perpen- dicular to a three-fold axis. (See figure 7.) Smithsonian Report, 1960— Dilli mmmmt Plate 6 ■riMaMBMMHIHMKia < Smithsonian Report, I960 — Dillon <- 0.1MM Ala^ncti/.ation sli'uclurf ai-ouiid a scialch in a hadl\' sliaiiu'd yitiimii iioii ^arnci ciyslal. Note llic wa\ in which tlic stnicUirc near one surface is out (>[ ret^isler vvilli iliat on the other. Smithsonian Report. 1960 Dillon Plate 8 3 \ \\ 7 V\\ \ \ // \ /// / /^// c s is S MAGNETIZATION IN CRYSTALS — DILLON 391 say, parallel to the line of sight. Wlieii this was done, and the angle of rotation per unit thickness measured for light of various colore, the specific rotation curve of figure 2 was obtained. This also shows some structure and it is clearly related to that of the absorption cui-ve. The rotation is least in the red, and greatest near the absorption edge in the green. It might be remarked parenthetically that a great deal of the basic scientific interest in these transparent crystals arises from the fact that we are able to measure the structure in the absorption and rota- tion curves out to the middle of the visible spectrum. The peaks in a here and others in the near infrared represent electron transitions involving the electrons responsible for the magnetization of tliese crystals. The rotation very clearly demonstrates the involvement of the magnetization. It is believed that the transitions involved in both the rotation and the absorption are between levels of the iron ions in octahedral sites. It is not the total magnetization that is unportant in determining the sign of rotation, but the direction in which the magnetization of the octahedral Fe+ + + lattice lies. DOMAIN VISIBILITY How, precisely, do we see the distribution of the magnetization in one of our little transparent samples ? [10] Figure 3 illustrates this. Consider a hypothetical crystal in which the magnetization is dis- tributed in three sections: parallel, antiparallel, and perpendicular to the line of sight, as shown in the figure. Before passing through the crystal, the light goes through a polarizer. Consider the red light and the green light separately. Passing through regions (a) and (6), the planes of polarization will be rotated in opposite senses, and the net rotation for the green will be much greater than that for the red. The light which passed through (c) will not be rotated at all. How- ever, in every case the green will be considerably more attenuated than the red. Now compare three settings of a second polarizer, traditionally called the analyzer, and the corresponding appearance of the magnet- ization. If the analyzer is set at the angle which corresponds to extinction without the sample, light passing through region (c) is not rotated at all, and thus (c) appears black. However, the red light going through (a) and (h) is rotated slightly, and the green light about three times as much. Because of the greater angle for the green, we see these regions as bright gi'een. However, in the narrow band be- tween (a) and (&) the magnetization makes a smooth transition be- tween parallel and antiparallel to the line of sight. In the center of this the magnetization lies in the plane, and thus it, like region (c), 579421—61 30 392 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1960 5LAR'ZER Figure 3. — A schematic representation of the mechanism whereby we see the disposition of the magnetization with a transparent magnetic crystal. appears black. If the analyzer is turned so that the green light going through (a) is extinguished, the region {a) will appear dark red, and (6) will be a pale red or yellow. Kegion (c) will be of some interme- diate shade. Similarly, by turning the analyzer to the other side of the original extinction, setting (6) can be made to appear dark, and (a) light, with (ed briefly above seems to leave the surface of the crystal strained. The result is that there is a stress-induced easy direction of magnetiza- tion normal to the surface. If there are areas of greater strain than others such as might be expected below a place where a scratch from a coarse abrasive was polished out, there will be special forces on the magnetization in that region. If the stress is relativelj^ uniform over the surface, the domain structure will consist of fairly simple pat- terns — long sections of straight parallel walls are typical, though very interesting patterns can be obtained. Plate 6 is an example of such a structure. If, on the other hand, the effects of local strains are large, the pattern will be irregular. It might well be that there are regions in which the domain walls, starting from the bottom surface, are out of register with those near the top surface. Plate 7 shows the domain structure seen in a crystal which is badly scratched. In addi- tion to the main scratcli, it will be seen tliat there are several otlier distinguishable lines which seem to prefer to have a domain wall along them. These represent the stressed volume of material below a scratch which has been polislied out at least until the surface is smooth. Some of the strain with which we must reckon arises in the growth process of the crystal. As far as we know, no one has yet been able to produce a specimen in which the domain structure was not in some degree determined by the state of stress of the sample. However, by etching away the mechanically polished surface, it is possible to achieve patterns which are not completely dominated by this surface MAGNETIZATION IN CRYSTALS — DILLON 399 M^ftfr? c. a. Figure 8. — Possible magnetization distributions in a crystal in which the magnetization is constrained to lie perpendicular to the surface. strain. In such a specimen the domain structure is fantastically fragile. Merely touching the crystal with a single bristle from a fine camel's-hair brush will completely alter the structure obseived. Stretching or compressing or bending any of these samples will radi- cally affect the magnetization. If a simple stress is applied, the effects can often be easily miderstood. Consider a crystal plate which suffers from a uniform surface com- pression as just discussed, such that its easy direction of magnetiza- tion is perpendicular to the faces. Wliy is its magnetization not merely all in one direction in one domain the size of the crystal as in figure 8 (a) ? The answer lies in the minimization of what is called demagnetizing energy. If a sample has the magnetization as in figure 8{a), there is a magnetic field extending out into space around the sample. It requires energy to set up a magnetic field in space — so- called field energy, and it depends on the strength of the field and the volume of space. If the magnetization breaks up into a ribbon pat- tern as in figure 8(&) , the intensity of the fields involved will be about the same, but they will fill a much smaller volume of space. Thus by breaking up into ribbon domains, the field energy part of the total magnetic energy has been drastically reduced. The reader might ask why the process does not continue, say, to the condition (c), where the ribbons are even smaller and the field energy is even lower. It turns out that the domain walls have energy, 400 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1960 and that this is constant per unit area. As we increased the number of ribbon domains, we would increase the total wall energy. Some- where there is an optimum spacing where the total energy is a mini- mum, and tliis is the stable spacing. In these crystals the spacing depends on the thickness, and on the magnetization. If we decrease the thickness, the ribbons become narrower; if we increase the mag- netization, the ribbons become narrower. Suppose the magnetization were decreased to zero. Then there would be no fields associated with a configuration such as that in figure 8(a), and it would be the stable domain configuration. Referring back to figure 1, we see that for gadolinium iron garnet there is a compensation point just a little below room temperature. It is merely necessary to cool the sample about 10° C. to get so close to the compensation point that the mag- netization is negligible, and very large areas replace the ribbon domains. The part of the energy of which we have just been speaking is often termed the "demagnetizing energy," since its minimization al- ways tends to demagnetize magnetic bodies. The fields are "demag- netizing fields." The effect obviously has a great deal to do with the shape of a sample, and with the direction within the sample along which the magnetization chooses to lie. DOMAIN WALLS Let us change our frame of reference slightly and consider the domain walls as entities. Of what do they consist, what are their energies, and what is their importance? Figure 9 is a schematic representation of the magnetization distribution on passing through a 180° domain wall; that is, a wall on one side of wliich the magneti- zation is antiparallel to that on the other side. In the domains on each side of the wall the magnetization lies along an easy direction, and neighboring volumes have their magnetization parallel. But within the wall there is a volume of material which has its magnetiza- tion along other than easy directions ; thus the wall must have asso- ciated with it a certain amount of anisotropy energy. This part of the energy could be reduced by making the wall thinner, for then the total volume of magnetization out of an easy direction would be reduced. If the wall had no thickness, it would have no anisotropy energy. But we remarked much earlier that if it had no thickness, the net magnetic moment of neighboring cells would be antiparallel and would have a prohibitive exchange energy. The total exchange energy can be reduced by making the angle between tlie magnetiza- tion of adjacent volume elements as small as possible. Thus the exchange energy would be a minimum for an infinitely thick wall. Here we have two energy conditions, one forcing the wall to be MAGNETIZATION IN CRYSTALS — DILLON 401 Figure 9. — An indication of the way in which the magnetization direction varies on passing through a 180° domain wall. thinner, and the other forcing it to be thicker. The actual thickness, of course, depends on the size of the maximum anisotropy energy for the crystal at that particular temperature and the size of the exchange energy. For yttrium iron garnet at room temperature, we would expect the wall to be about 7,000 A thick. This is equal to 550 times the lattice constant, the edge of the cubic unit cell. If there are neighboring domains in which the magnetization is directed along two different easy directions, a little consideration will show that in these crystals we could have 180°, 110°, and 70° walls. In crystals in which the polishing strain determines a single easy axis, there are only 180° walls. The geometrical situation is considerably more complicated in the general case, since it is necessary to take into account the crystal plane in which the wall itself lies. Note in figure 9 that the wall is drawn so that the magnetic moments are always parallel to the plane of the wall. If they were not, there would be a large magnetostatic energy associated with the wall in the same way as that of the single large domain in figure 8. The stringency of this condition varies as the magnetization, and when the magnetization approaches a compensation point it disappears altogether. Thus in gadolinium iron garnet at 14° C, the angular variation of, say, the octahedral iron magnetization is somewhat dif- ferent from that in the yttrium iron garnet at the same temperature. The expected domain wall thickness in our samples is somewhat 402 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1960 less than a wavelength of visible light. This means that with an optical microscope we cannot resolve any structure within the wall. We might be able to see the wall, and determine whether the mag- netization is up or down, but it is unreasonable to expect to be able to see anything meaningful about how the magnetization is distributed within it or, for example, how thick the wall is. Anything which looks like structure within the wall or a clear-cut thickness in our photo- graphs is probably an artifact. The manner in which the magnetization varies across the wall depicted in figure 9 is like a right-hand screw. It could equally well have been like a left-hand screw. However, we can visually dis- tinguish between these two cases. Note that at the center of the wall in figure 9 the magnetization is directed forward. If it were a left- handed wall, the magnetization would be back along the middle of the wall. By setting the analyzer off the original extinction setting, we can make these two wall segments appear light and dark. There are several examples of this in the photographs shown in this paper. Plate 3 has a 180° domain wall between domains in the plane which alternates from right to left handed. The boundaries between right- and left-handed wall segments may be regarded as entities in them- selves. They are known as Bloch lines, and have an energy per unit length associated with them. Plate 8 contains a very simple example of a wall in two segments of opposite sense separated by a Bloch line. If there is an energy per unit area associated with a domain wall, the wall energy can always be reduced by decreasing the area of the wall. Thus it tends to stretch tight if possible. This "surface ten- sion" is exactly comparable with the surface tension observed in a soap bubble. Similarly in the case of the Bloch line, the line acts like an elastic string under tension always trying to decrease its length. CONCLUSION The domain theory view of the magnetic properties of ferromag- netic materials is by no means the most sophisticated. However, it is a great deal more fundamental than that in which the magnetic in- duction versus field relationship is merely tabulated and characterized for a range of technologically interesting materials. Unfortunately, in many cases this latter has been tlie basis of teaching ferromagnetism. The macroscopic magnetic properties of most specimens may be con- sidered as arising from the domain structure that prevails and from the hindrances to its alteration [15]. A soft magnetic material shows a high permeability at low fields, and its entire induction can be re- versed fairly easily. These are the materials for transformer cores, inductors, and so on. An example of this is the part of plate 3 in MAGNETIZATION IN CRYSTALS — DILLON 403 which the magnetization lies in the plane. Here the application of exceedingly small fields in the plane of the sample moves the inter- vening 180° wall, and thus the total magnetization is very responsive to the field. Hindrances to wall motion, such as actual holes in the material, inclusions of some other compound, overall strain, or a small highly strained region, modify this responsiveness very markedly. All these effects can be seen in some degree in these transparent mag- netic garnets. None of our samples ever becomes magnetically "hard" in comparison with magnetoplumbite or ferroxdure. However, the contrast between samples with one or more of the hindrances men- tioned and samples in which the walls can move freely is very clear and instructive. The transparency and magnetic rotation in the f errimagnetic garnets enable us to see many of the characteristics of domain structure m what are perhaps our best experimental magnetic specimens at this time. From the point of view of demonstration and illustration, one can see manifested in these domains and the way in which they behave with field temperature, strain, etc., all the factors that determine the magnetic behavior of a material, in addition to its own interest. The ability to see the magnetization has proved to be a valuable tool in fundamental magnetic research. REFERENCES 1. Dillon, J. F., Jr. Optical properties of several ferrimagnetic garnets. Journ. Appl. Phys., vol. 29, pp. 539-541, 1958. 2. Sheewood, R. C. ; Remeika, J. P. ; and Williams, H. J. Domain behavior in some transparent magnetic oxides. Journ. Appl. Phys., vol. 30, pp. 217- 225, 1959. 3. Beetaut, F., and Foerat, F. Structure des ferrites ferrimagnetiques des terres rares. C.R. Acad. Sci. Paris, vol. 242, pp. 382-384, 1956. 4. Gellee, S., and Gilleo, M. A. Structure and ferrimagnetism of yttrium and rare-earth iron garnets. Acta Crystallographica, vol. 10, p. 239, 1957. 4a. Gilleo, M. A., and Gellee, S. The interaction of magnetic ions in GdaMn^GeiGaOio and related garnets. Journ. Phys. Chem. Solids, vol. 10, pp. 187-190, 1959. 5. Beetaut, F., and Pauthenet, R. Crystalline structure and magnetic prop- erties of ferrites having the general formula 5 FeaOs SM^Os. Proc. Inst. Electr. Eng., B, vol. 104, suppl. 5, pp. 261-266, 1957. 6. Nielsen, J. W., and Deaebobn, E. F. Growth of single crystals of magnetic garnets. Journ. Phys. Chem. Solids, vol. 5, pp. 202-207, 1958. 7. Nielsen, J. W. Improved method for the growth of yttrium-iron and yttrium- gallium garnets. Journ. Appl. Phys., vol. 31, pp. 51S-52S, 1960. 8. Lefever, R. a., and Chase, A. B. Substitutional incorporation of divalent iron into yttrium iron garnet. Journ. Chem. Phys., vol. 32, pp. 1575-1576, 1960. 9. Dillon, J. F., Ja. Optical absorptions and rotations in the ferrimagnetic garnets. Journ. de Physique et le Radium, vol. 20, pp. 374-377, 1959. 10. Dillon, J. F., Je. Observation of domains in the ferrimagnetic garnets by transmitted light. Journ. Appl. Phys., vol. 29, pp. 1286-1291, 1958. 404 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1960 11. Weiss, P. L'hypothese du champ moleculaire et la propri6t6 ferromag- netique. Journ. de Physique et le Radium, vol. 6, pp. 661-€90, 1907. 12. KiTTEL, C, and Galt, J. K. Ferromagnetic domain theory, in Solid State Physics, vol. 3, pp. 437-564, Academic Press, New York, 1956. 13. Stewakt, K. H. Ferromagnetic domains. University Press, Cambridge, 1954. 14. An excellent fllmstrip entitled "The formation of ferromagnetic domains" has been prepared under the supervision of H. J. Williams. For informa- tion on how to obtain it on loan, write to Mr. John Friedman, Publications Department, Bell Telephone Laboratories, Murray Hill, N.J. 15. Dillon, J. F., Jb., and Earl, H. E. Demonstration of magnetic domains. (Contains a description of a demonstration device intended for use in teaching magnetism from the domain viewpoint.) Amer. Journ. Phys., vol. 27, pp. 201-208, 1959. Reprints of the various articles in this Report may be obtained, as long as the supply lasts, on request addressed to the Editorial and Publications Division, Smithsonian Institution, Washington 25, D.C. Biophysics of Bird Flight^ By August Raspet [With 2 plates] There is no doubt that modern mechanical flight owes its inspiration to observations of birds in flight by early philosophers and scientists as well as by interested laymen. The earliest living "flying machine" is dated about 150 million years ago. This was the pterodactyl of geo- logic times. In contrast, manmade flying machines are only 57 years old. You can see from this contrast of eras that we may look for new knowledge of flight from a study of this age-old concept of bird flight. In Greek mj^hology, the story of Daedalus and Icarus is well known. Daedalus designed and built, supposedly, two flying ma- chines, covered with feathers, using a stnicture of wax t-o support them. Tliis was really a mythical imitation of bird flight. There was no application of real knowledge of the mechanism of bird flight, merely an imitation, in form, but not in function. But, of course, not having this knowledge, we, even today, cannot duplicate bird flight in the sense of straight imitation on a scale such that a man can fly as a bird does, by his own muscle power. The first known flying machine constructed on bird-flight concepts was Da Vinci's well-known invention. About 1505, Da Vinci test- flew this machine, using a test pilot, as is common practice today. The results are indicated in Da Vinci's notebooks by the fact that after this test flight there was no more mention of flying. There is rumor that the test pilot broke his leg. The test pilot, in this case, was one of Da Vinci's household servants (pi. 1) . It was Lilienthal [1]^ who also imitated bird flight, even to the point of using such small stabilizing tail surfaces that his machme was only marginally stable. But we must remember that it was also Lilienthal who, by this bird imitation, proved Newton, Kirchhoff, and Helmholtz to be wrong in their concept that lift is generated by a downward de- » Reprinted by permission from Science, vol. 132, No. 3421, July 22, 1960. 'The author, at the time of his death on Apr. 27, 1960, was head of the Aerophyslcs Department of the Engineering and Industrial Research Station, Mississippi State Uni- versity, State College. • Numbers In brackets refer to list of references and notes at end of article. 40.") 406 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1960 flection of the air, simply as a reflection phenomena, and in disregard- ing entirely the suction on the upper surface. For his failure to un- derstand that birds possess automatic stability due to instinctive re- flexes, in addition to that inherent in their geometry, Lilienthal paid with his life. The realm of bird flight can be clearly divided into two aspects: that on motionless wings, which is soaring, and that on flapping wings, which is really the working part of flight. The latter is used in take- off and in climbing to altitude, even by soaring birds. It is used as a principal mode of flight by the nonsoaring birds. The soaring phase of flight, or the flight on motionless wings, was divided by Lord Rayleigh in 1883 [2] into three separate categories : (i) Flight in which the path is not horizontal — in other words, gliding; (ii) flight in an air mass which has a vertical component — that is, static soaring ; and (iii) flight in an air mass which is not uniform in velocity. The latter is, in the strict sense, dynamic soaring. Evidently, a good im- derstanding of the first phase, the motionless wing phase, would con- tribute much to an understanding of the biophysics of bird flight. The second kind of flight, much more complicated (flapping flight) , has been theoretically studied, but very little experimental work has been done to support the various theories. It is the purpose of this article to take up in detail the aerodynamics of a bird's wing — in particular, that of motionless wing flight. WIND-TUNNEL EXPERIMENTS "\\Tien we consider the various tools available to us for studying flight in general, we are apt to resort to the one wliich has been so useful in helping man to fly — namely, the wind tunnel. It was a wind tmmel which helped the Wright brothers to arrive at proper airfoil sections,